Paleoneurology: neurodegenerative diseases are age-related diseases of specific brain regions recently developed by Homo sapiens.

Bipedal locomotion and fine motility of hand and larynx of humans introduced musculoskeletal adaptations, new pyramidal, corticostriatal, corticobulbar, nigrostriatal, and cerebellar pathways and expansions of prefrontal, cingular, parieto-temporal and occipital cortices with derived new brain capabilities. All selectively degenerate in aged homo sapiens following 16 syndromic presentations: (1) Parkinsonism: nigrostriatal control for fast automatic movements of hand, larynx, bipedal posture and gait ("simian gait and hand"). (2) Frontal (highest level) gait disorders (lower body parkinsonism, gait apraxia, retropulsion): prefrontostriatal executive control of bipedal locomotion. (3) ataxia: new synergistic coordination of bipedal gait and fine motility. (4) Dyskinesias (chorea, dystonia, tremor...): intrusions of simian basal ganglia motor subroutines. (5) motoneuron diseases: new proximo-distal and bulbar motoneurones, preserving older ones (oculomotor, abdominal...). (6) Archaic reflexes: prefrontal disinhibition of old mother/tree-climbing-oriented reflexes (sucking, grasping, Babinski/triple retraction, gegenhalten), group alarms (laughter, crying, yawning, grunting...) or grooming (tremor=scratching). (7) Dysautonomia: contextual regulation (orthostatism...). (8) REM sleep disorders of new cortical functions. (9) Corticobasal syndrome: melokinetic control of hand prehension-manipulation and language (retrocession to simian patterns). (10) Frontal/temporal lobe degeneration: medial-orbitofrontal behavioural variant: self monitoring of internal needs and social context: apathy, loss of personal hygiene, stereotypia, disinhibition, loss of concern for consequences of acts, social rules, danger and empathy; dorsolateral executive variant: inadequacy to the context of action (goal, environmental changes...); progressive non-fluent aphasia: executive and praxic processing of speech; temporal variant: abstract concepts for speech, gestures and vision (semantic dementia, progressive nonfluent aphasia) (11) Temporomesial-limbic-paralimbic-associative cortical dementias (Alzheimer's disease, Lewy body, progressive amnesia): processing of explicit cognition: amnesic syndrome, processing of hand, larynx and eye: disorientation, ideomotor apraxia, agnosia, visuospatial processing, transcortical aphasia. (12) Focal posterior atrophy (Benson, progressive apraxia): visuomotor processing of what and where. (13) Macular degeneration: retinal "spot" for explicit symbols. (14) "Psychiatric syndromes": metacognition, self monitoring and regulation of hierarchical processing of metacognition: hallucinations, delusions, magic and mystic logic, delusions, confabulations; drive: impulsivity, obsessive-compulsive disorders, mental automatisms; social interactions: theory of mind, autism, Asperger. (15) Mood disorders: control on emotions: anxio-depressive and bipolar disorders, moria, emotional lability. (16) Musculoskeletal: inclusion body myositis: muscles for bipedal gait and fine motility. Paget's disease: bones for bipedal gait and cranium. Understanding of the genetic mechanisms underlying the evolution of these recent human brain regions and paleoneurology my be the key to the focal, asymmetrical or systemic character of neurodegeneration, the pathologic heterogeneity/overlap of syndromic presentations associating gait, hand, language, cognition, mood and behaviour disorders.

[1]  T. Arendt.  Alzheimer’s disease as a loss of differentiation control in a subset of neurons that retain immature features in the adult brain , 2000, Neurobiology of Aging.

[2]  J. Eccles.  EVOLUTION OF THE BRAIN IN RELATION TO THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE SELF‐CONSCIOUS MIND , 1977, Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences.

[3]  R. Holloway,,et al.  Morphology and histology of chimpanzee primary visual striate cortex indicate that brain reorganization predated brain expansion in early hominid evolution. , 2003, The anatomical record. Part A, Discoveries in molecular, cellular, and evolutionary biology.

[4]  M. Brüne.  Social Cognition and Psychopathology in an Evolutionary Perspective , 2001, Psychopathology.

[5]  W. G. Webster.  TERRITORIALITY AND THE EVOLUTION OF BRAIN ASYMMETRY * , 1977, Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences.

[6]  E. Garcia-Rill,et al.  Chemical activation of the mesecephalic locomotor region , 1985, Brain Research.

[7]  M. Carpenter.  Ventral tier thalamic nuclei. , 1967, Modern trends in neurology.

[8]  Michael L. Anderson,et al.  Evolution of Cognitive Function via Redeployment of Brain Areas , 2007, The Neuroscientist : a review journal bringing neurobiology, neurology and psychiatry.

[9]  R. Alexander,et al.  Bipedal animals, and their differences from humans , 2004, Journal of anatomy.

[10]  Jon H. Kaas,et al.  The evolution of the complex sensory and motor systems of the human brain , 2008, Brain Research Bulletin.

[11]  R. Blesa,et al.  [Alzheimer's disease and brain evolution: is Alzheimer's disease an example of antagonistic pleiotropy?]. , 2006, Revista de neurologia.

[12]  H. Stephan.  Evolutionary trends in limbic structures , 1983, Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews.

[13]  Hans Noll.  The digital origin of human language--a synthesis. , 2003, BioEssays : news and reviews in molecular, cellular and developmental biology.

[14]  A. Kuliukas.  Wading for Food the Driving Force of the Evolution of Bipedalism?* , 2002, Nutrition and health.

[15]  A. Sidhu,et al.  The Degeneration of Dopamine Neurons in Parkinson's Disease: Insights from Embryology and Evolution of the Mesostriatocortical System , 2004, Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences.

[16]  P. L. Randall.  Schizophrenia as a consequence of brain evolution , 1998, Schizophrenia Research.

[17]  G. Martin,et al.  Gene action in the aging brain: an evolutionary biological perspective , 2002, Neurobiology of Aging.

[18]  X. Gu,et al.  Induced gene expression in human brain after the split from chimpanzee. , 2003, Trends in genetics : TIG.

[19]  Mitch Parsell,et al.  The cognitive cost of extending an evolutionary mind into the environment , 2006, Cognitive Processing.

[20]  Satoshi Kanazawa,et al.  General intelligence as a domain-specific adaptation. , 2004, Psychological review.

[21]  C. Korth.  A co-evolutionary theory of sleep. , 1995, Medical hypotheses.

[22]  Zhi-xiang Lu,et al.  A human‐specific mutation leads to the origin of a novel splice form of neuropsin (KLK8), a gene involved in learning and memory , 2007, Human mutation.

[23]  L. Herzenberg,et al.  Culturing at atmospheric oxygen levels impacts lymphocyte function. , 2005, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America.

[24]  D. Radice,et al.  Cognitive dysfunction and impaired organization of complex motility in degenerative parkinsonian syndromes. , 1998, Archives of neurology.

[25]  G. Rizzolatti,et al.  The mirror-neuron system. , 2004, Annual review of neuroscience.

[26]  C. Ponting,et al.  Evolutionary biology: Human brain gene wins genome race , 2006, Nature.

[27]  M. Hofman.  From here to eternity: Brain ageing in an evolutionary perspective , 1991, Neurobiology of Aging.

[28]  H. J. Jerison.  THE THEORY OF ENCEPHALIZATION , 1977, Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences.

[29]  W. Dobyns,et al.  Genetic links between brain development and brain evolution , 2005, Nature Reviews Genetics.

[30]  P. Stankiewicz,et al.  Serial segmental duplications during primate evolution result in complex human genome architecture. , 2004, Genome research.

[31]  E. Bruner.  Geometric morphometrics and paleoneurology: brain shape evolution in the genus Homo. , 2004, Journal of human evolution.

[32]  Timothy B Sackton,et al.  A Scan for Positively Selected Genes in the Genomes of Humans and Chimpanzees , 2005, PLoS biology.

[33]  R. Porter.  The brain: seat of motor control∗: Corticospinal neurones in movement performance , 1984, The Medical journal of Australia.

[34]  G. Marcus,et al.  The eloquent ape: genes, brains and the evolution of language , 2006, Nature Reviews Genetics.

[35]  Kathrin Cohen Kadosh,et al.  Developing a cortex specialized for face perception , 2007, Trends in Cognitive Sciences.

[36]  G. Vallortigara,et al.  survival with an asymmetrical brain: advantages and disadvantages of cerebral lateralization , 2005, Behavioral and Brain Sciences.

[37]  Mark A. Levenstien,et al.  Clinical delineation and localization to chromosome 9p13.3-p12 of a unique dominant disorder in four families: hereditary inclusion body myopathy, Paget disease of bone, and frontotemporal dementia. , 2001, Molecular genetics and metabolism.

[38]  A. Benton.  Historical notes on hemispheric dominance. , 1977, Archives of neurology.

[39]  Arthur J. Robson,et al.  The emergence of humans: The coevolution of intelligence and longevity with intergenerational transfers , 2002, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America.

[40]  F. Bookstein,et al.  Comparing frontal cranial profiles in archaic and modern Homo by morphometric analysis , 1999, The Anatomical record.

[41]  Marla Gearing,et al.  Aβ 40 is a major form of β-amyloid in nonhuman primates , 1996, Neurobiology of Aging.

[42]  E. Armstrong,et al.  A quantitative comparison of the hominoid thalamus: II. Limbic nuclei anterior principalis and lateralis dorsalis. , 1980, American journal of physical anthropology.

[43]  A. Sinha.  Reflective consciousness and the emergence of memes: Serial evolutionary pathways? , 2002, Journal of Biosciences.

[44]  Karl Zilles,et al.  Cortical Orofacial Motor Representation in Old World Monkeys, Great Apes, and Humans , 2004, Brain, Behavior and Evolution.

[45]  D. Haussler,et al.  An RNA gene expressed during cortical development evolved rapidly in humans , 2006, Nature.

[46]  M. Mattson.  Brain evolution and lifespan regulation: conservation of signal transduction pathways that regulate energy metabolism , 2002, Mechanisms of Ageing and Development.

[47]  P. C. Lee,et al.  Ecology and energetics of encephalization in hominid evolution. , 1991, Philosophical transactions of the Royal Society of London. Series B, Biological sciences.

[48]  K. Semendeferi,et al.  Neural connectivity and cortical substrates of cognition in hominoids. , 2005, Journal of human evolution.

[49]  D. P. Sutherland,et al.  Variation and evolution of mammalian corticospinal somata with special reference to primates , 1995, The Journal of comparative neurology.

[50]  P. Schoenemann,et al.  Prefrontal white matter volume is disproportionately larger in humans than in other primates , 2005, Nature Neuroscience.

[51]  B. Towers.  Consciousness and the brain: evolutionary aspects. , 1979, Ciba Foundation symposium.

[52]  Patrick D. Evans,et al.  Microcephalin, a Gene Regulating Brain Size, Continues to Evolve Adaptively in Humans , 2005, Science.

[53]  R. Paget.  The Origin of Speech , 1927, Nature.

[54]  F. Jacob,et al.  Evolution and tinkering. , 1977, Science.

[55]  Lawrence B. Martin,et al.  Hominoid dietary evolution. , 1991, Philosophical transactions of the Royal Society of London. Series B, Biological sciences.

[56]  The Long Reach of Evolution and Development: Effects on the Alzheimer Brain , 2000, Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences.

[57]  Relative placement of the mandibular fossa in great apes and humans. , 2002, Journal of human evolution.

[58]  P V Simonov,et al.  [Consciousness and the brain]. , 1993, Zhurnal vysshei nervnoi deiatelnosti imeni I P Pavlova.

[59]  Group selection, altruism, reinforcement, and throwing in human evolution. , 1975, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America.

[60]  E. Culotta.  What Genetic Changes Made Us Uniquely Human? , 2005, Science.

[61]  H. Eichenbaum,et al.  Evolution of declarative memory , 2006, Hippocampus.

[62]  Y. Coppens.  East side story: the origin of humankind. , 1994, Scientific American.

[63]  A. Whiten.  Social complexity and social intelligence. , 2000, Novartis Foundation symposium.

[64]  C. Gross.  Hippocampus minor and man's place in nature: A case study in the social construction of neuroanatomy , 1993, Hippocampus.

[65]  G. Ettlinger,et al.  A comparison of cortical functions in man and the other primates. , 1974, International review of neurobiology.

[66]  Thomas Suddendorf,et al.  Foresight and Evolution of the Human Mind , 2006, Science.

[67]  P. Strick,et al.  Motor areas in the frontal lobe of the primate , 2002, Physiology & Behavior.

[68]  Robin I. M. Dunbar,et al.  Visual and socio–cognitive information processing in primate brain evolution , 1997, Proceedings of the Royal Society of London. Series B: Biological Sciences.

[69]  M. Alpert.  LATERALIZATION OF THE HUMAN BRAIN , 1977, Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences.

[70]  W Böcher.  [Human behavior between instinct, feelings and responsibility]. , 1994, Blutalkohol.

[71]  R. Knight,et al.  Frontal Lobe Contributions to Theory of Mind , 1998, Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience.

[72]  E. Almquist.  Evolution of the distal radioulnar joint. , 1992, Clinical orthopaedics and related research.

[73]  M. Cohn,et al.  Morphological analysis of the mammalian postcranium: a developmental perspective. , 1999, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America.

[74]  H. Damasio,et al.  Humans and great apes share a large frontal cortex , 2002, Nature Neuroscience.

[75]  U. Tan.  EVIDENCE FOR “UNER TAN SYNDROME” AS A HUMAN MODEL FOR REVERSE EVOLUTION , 2006, The International journal of neuroscience.

[76]  A. Di Fiore,et al.  Evolution of social organization: a reappraisal for primates by using phylogenetic methods. , 1994, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America.

[77]  S. Almécija,et al.  Orang-like manual adaptations in the fossil hominoid Hispanopithecus laietanus: first steps towards great ape suspensory behaviours , 2007, Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences.

[78]  Evolutionary Genetics: Is brain evolution still continuing in modern humans? , 2006, European Journal of Human Genetics.

[79]  T. Paus,et al.  Brain size and folding of the human cerebral cortex. , 2008, Cerebral cortex.

[80]  Robin I. M. Dunbar,et al.  Evolution of the Social Brain , 2003, Science.

[81]  S. Seely.  The evolution of human longevity. , 1980, Medical hypotheses.

[82]  Detlev Arendt,et al.  Genes and homology in nervous system evolution: Comparing gene functions, expression patterns, and cell type molecular fingerprints , 2005, Theory in Biosciences.

[83]  John J Oró,et al.  Evolution of the Brain: From Behavior to Consciousness in 3.4 Billion Years. , 2005, Neurosurgery.

[84]  R. Baker,et al.  Evolutionary Patterns of Cranial Nerve Efferent Nuclei in Vertebrates , 2005, Brain, Behavior and Evolution.

[85]  J. Kaas,et al.  Evolutionary neurobiology: The neocortex comes together , 1999, Nature.

[86]  Richard J Davidson,et al.  Darwin and the Neural Bases of Emotion and Affective Style , 2003, Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences.

[87]  J. Allman,et al.  Early frontotemporal dementia targets neurons unique to apes and humans , 2006, Annals of neurology.

[88]  A. Monaco,et al.  The SPCH1 region on human 7q31: genomic characterization of the critical interval and localization of translocations associated with speech and language disorder. , 2000, American journal of human genetics.

[89]  Joshua M. Polanski,et al.  Patterns of craniofacial integration in extant Homo, Pan, and Gorilla. , 2006, American journal of physical anthropology.

[90]  K. Hokamp,et al.  The extracellular Leucine-Rich Repeat superfamily; a comparative survey and analysis of evolutionary relationships and expression patterns , 2007, BMC Genomics.

[91]  S. Dimond.  EVOLUTION AND LATERALIZATION OF THE BRAIN: CONCLUDING REMARKS , 1977, Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences.

[92]  Scott H. Johnson-Frey.  What's So Special about Human Tool Use? , 2003, Neuron.

[93]  P. Hof,et al.  Evolution of increased glia–neuron ratios in the human frontal cortex , 2006, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences.

[94]  M. Mishkin,et al.  FOXP2 and the neuroanatomy of speech and language , 2005, Nature Reviews Neuroscience.

[95]  N. Kleitman.  Phylogenetic, ontogenetic and environmental determinants in the evolution of sleep-wakefulness cycles. , 1967, Research publications - Association for Research in Nervous and Mental Disease.

[96]  Philipp Khaitovich,et al.  Aging and Gene Expression in the Primate Brain , 2005, PLoS biology.

[97]  P. Lieberman.  On the nature and evolution of the neural bases of human language. , 2002, American journal of physical anthropology.

[98]  C. Pedersen.  Biological Aspects of Social Bonding and the Roots of Human Violence , 2004, Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences.

[99]  Patrick R Hof,et al.  Variability of Broca's area homologue in African great apes: implications for language evolution. , 2003, The anatomical record. Part A, Discoveries in molecular, cellular, and evolutionary biology.

[100]  Merlin Donald.  The neurobiology of human consciousness: An evolutionary approach , 1995, Neuropsychologia.

[101]  C. Dean.  Progress in understanding hominoid dental development , 2000, Journal of anatomy.

[102]  J. Tigges,et al.  A beta40 is a major form of beta-amyloid in nonhuman primates. , 1996, Neurobiology of aging.

[103]  R Lewin,et al.  The origin of the modern human mind. , 1987, Science.

[104]  M. Mathews,et al.  Novel rapidly evolving hominid RNAs bind nuclear factor 90 and display tissue-restricted distribution , 2007, Nucleic acids research.

[105]  T. Insel,et al.  Evolution of the Cerebellum in Primates: Differences in Relative Volume among Monkeys, Apes and Humans , 1998, Brain, Behavior and Evolution.

[106]  J. Skoyles.  Human balance, the evolution of bipedalism and dysequilibrium syndrome. , 2006, Medical hypotheses.

[107]  Herman Buschke,et al.  Abnormality of gait as a predictor of non-Alzheimer's dementia. , 2002, The New England journal of medicine.

[108]  M. Ullman.  Contributions of memory circuits to language: the declarative/procedural model , 2004, Cognition.

[109]  Y. Burnod,et al.  A morphogenetic model for the development of cortical convolutions. , 2005, Cerebral cortex.

[110]  J. Pinkerton.  SOME ASPECTS OF THE EVOLUTION AND COMPARATIVE ANATOMY OF THE HUMAN PELVIS * , 1973, The Journal of obstetrics and gynaecology of the British Commonwealth.

[111]  D. Geary.  The motivation to control and the origin of mind: exploring the life-mind joint point in the Tree of Knowledge System. , 2005, Journal of clinical psychology.

[112]  S. Goldman,et al.  Astrocytic complexity distinguishes the human brain , 2006, Trends in Neurosciences.

[113]  Olivier Fedrigo,et al.  Promoter regions of many neural- and nutrition-related genes have experienced positive selection during human evolution , 2007, Nature Genetics.

[114]  M. Arbib.  Co‐Evolution of Human Consciousness and Language , 2001, Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences.

[115]  D. Normile.  Gene Expression Differs in Human and Chimp Brains , 2001, Science.

[116]  H. Karten,et al.  Homology and evolutionary origins of the 'neocortex'. , 1991, Brain, behavior and evolution.

[117]  T. Edinger.  Paleoneurology 1804-1966: an annotated bibliography. , 1975, Advances in anatomy, embryology, and cell biology.

[118]  N. S. Orzhekhovskaia.  [Comparative study of formation of the frontal cortex of the brain of monkeys and man in ontogenesis]. , 1975, Arkhiv anatomii, gistologii i embriologii.

[119]  S. Jacobsen,et al.  Plant genetics: Increased outcrossing in hothead mutants , 2006, Nature.

[120]  J. Siegel.  Phylogeny and the function of REM sleep , 1995, Behavioural Brain Research.

[121]  G. V. Van Hoesen,et al.  Prefrontal cortex in humans and apes: a comparative study of area 10. , 2001, American journal of physical anthropology.

[122]  D. Buxhoeveden,et al.  Lateralization of Minicolumns in Human Planum temporale Is Absent in Nonhuman Primate Cortex , 2001, Brain, Behavior and Evolution.

[123]  R. Bontrop,et al.  Molecular evolution of the human SRPX2 gene that causes brain disorders of the Rolandic and Sylvian speech areas , 2007, BMC Genetics.

[124]  K. A. Provins,et al.  Handedness and speech: a critical reappraisal of the role of genetic and environmental factors in the cerebral lateralization of function. , 1997, Psychological review.

[125]  Jeffery P. Demuth,et al.  Accelerated Rate of Gene Gain and Loss in Primates , 2007, Genetics.

[126]  Are Human Brains Still Evolving? Brain Genes Show Signs of Selection , 2005, Science.

[127]  Karl Zilles,et al.  Expansion of the neocerebellum in Hominoidea. , 2003, Journal of human evolution.

[128]  R. Fouts,et al.  Sympathetic mouth movements accompanying fine motor movements in chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes) with implications toward the evolution of language , 2002, Neurological research.

[129]  Shik Ml,et al.  Control of walking and running by means of electric stimulation of the midbrain , 1966 .

[130]  G. Roth,et al.  Evolution of the brain and intelligence , 2005, Trends in Cognitive Sciences.

[131]  F Aboitiz.  Epigenesis and the evolution of the human brain. , 1988, Medical hypotheses.

[132]  K. Yokote,et al.  [Werner's syndrome associated with progressive subcortical vascular encephalopathy of the Binswanger type]. , 1999, Nihon Ronen Igakkai zasshi. Japanese journal of geriatrics.

[133]  G. V. Van Hoesen,et al.  The evolution of the frontal lobes: a volumetric analysis based on three-dimensional reconstructions of magnetic resonance scans of human and ape brains. , 1997, Journal of human evolution.

[134]  J Levy,et al.  THE MAMMALIAN BRAIN AND THE ADAPTIVE ADVANTAGE OF CEREBRAL ASYMMETRY , 1977, Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences.

[135]  J. Fuster.  Frontal lobe and cognitive development , 2002, Journal of neurocytology.

[136]  R. Cutler.  Evolution of human longevity: A critical overview , 1979, Mechanisms of Ageing and Development.

[137]  Palaeoanthropology: homing in on early Homo. , 2007, Nature.

[138]  D. Wildman,et al.  Distinct genomic signatures of adaptation in pre- and postnatal environments during human evolution , 2008, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences.

[139]  Bruce T Lahn,et al.  Adaptive evolution of ASPM, a major determinant of cerebral cortical size in humans. , 2004, Human molecular genetics.

[140]  E. Vallender,et al.  A primate-specific acceleration in the evolution of the caspase-dependent apoptosis pathway. , 2006, Human molecular genetics.

[141]  R V Putz,et al.  [Evolution of the hand]. , 1999, Handchirurgie, Mikrochirurgie, plastische Chirurgie : Organ der Deutschsprachigen Arbeitsgemeinschaft fur Handchirurgie : Organ der Deutschsprachigen Arbeitsgemeinschaft fur Mikrochirurgie der Peripheren Nerven und Gefasse : Organ der V....

[142]  E. Hodgson.  THE EVOLUTIONARY ORIGIN OF THE BRAIN , 1977, Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences.

[143]  A. Parent,et al.  The brain in evolution and involution. , 1997, Biochemistry and cell biology = Biochimie et biologie cellulaire.

[144]  D. Rail.  A neural basis for symbol development. , 1986, Medical hypotheses.

[145]  S. Rapoport.  Brain evolution and Alzheimer's disease. , 1988, Revue neurologique.

[146]  Arcadi Navarro,et al.  Chromosomal rearrangements and the genomic distribution of gene-expression divergence in humans and chimpanzees. , 2004, Trends in genetics : TIG.

[147]  Naomichi Ogihara,et al.  Human origins and environmental backgrounds , 2006 .

[148]  K. Pribram.  HEMISPHERIC SPECIALIZATION: EVOLUTION OR REVOLUTION , 1977, Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences.

[149]  Jianzhi Zhang,et al.  Did brain-specific genes evolve faster in humans than in chimpanzees? , 2006, Trends in genetics : TIG.

[150]  M. Balter.  Are Humans Still Evolving? , 2005, Science.

[151]  R. Passingham,et al.  Anatomical differences between the neocortex of man and other primates. , 1973, Brain, behavior and evolution.

[152]  C. Renfrew.  Neuroscience, evolution and the sapient paradox: the factuality of value and of the sacred , 2008, Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences.

[153]  R. Wurtz,et al.  Visual and oculomotor functions of monkey substantia nigra pars reticulata. IV. Relation of substantia nigra to superior colliculus. , 1983, Journal of neurophysiology.

[154]  D. Povinelli,et al.  Theory of mind: evolutionary history of a cognitive specialization , 1995, Trends in Neurosciences.

[155]  M. Balter.  How Human Intelligence Evolved--Is It Science or 'Paleofantasy'? , 2008, Science.

[156]  H. Damasio,et al.  The brain and its main anatomical subdivisions in living hominoids using magnetic resonance imaging. , 2000, Journal of human evolution.

[157]  F. Aboitiz.  Working memory networks and the origin of language areas in the human brain. , 1995, Medical hypotheses.

[158]  S. Antón.  Natural history of Homo erectus. , 2003, American journal of physical anthropology.

[159]  Joseph E LeDoux.  Neuroevolutionary mechanisms of cerebral asymmetry in man. , 1982, Brain, behavior and evolution.

[160]  S. F. Witelson.  ANATOMIC ASYMMETRY IN THE TEMPORAL LOBES: ITS DOCUMENTATION, PHYLOGENESIS, AND RELATIONSHIP TO FUNCTIONAL ASYMMETRY * , 1977, Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences.

[161]  J. Burns.  An evolutionary theory of schizophrenia: Cortical connectivity, metarepresentation, and the social brain , 2004, Behavioral and Brain Sciences.

[162]  M. Brüne,et al.  Theory of mind—evolution, ontogeny, brain mechanisms and psychopathology , 2006, Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews.

[163]  M. Corballis.  On the evolution of language and generativity , 1992, Cognition.

[164]  S. Pääbo,et al.  Functional analysis of human and chimpanzee promoters , 2005, Genome Biology.

[165]  T. Crow,et al.  SINE-R.C2 (a Homo sapiens specific retroposon) is homologous to CDNA from postmortem brain in schizophrenia and to two loci in the Xq21.3/Yp block linked to handedness and psychosis. , 1999, American journal of medical genetics.

[166]  S. Pääbo,et al.  Parallel Patterns of Evolution in the Genomes and Transcriptomes of Humans and Chimpanzees , 2005, Science.

[167]  S. Almécija,et al.  Taxonomic Attribution of the Olduvai Hominid 7 Manual Remains and the Functional Interpretation of Hand Morphology in Robust Australopithecines , 2008, Folia Primatologica.

[168]  Comparative study of formation of the frontal cortex of the brain of monkeys and man in ontogenesis , 1975 .

[169]  S. Ambrose.  Paleolithic Technology and Human Evolution , 2001, Science.

[170]  M. Corballis.  From mouth to hand: Gesture, speech, and the evolution of right-handedness , 2003, Behavioral and Brain Sciences.

[171]  E. Check.  Mix and match: the hunt for what makes us human , 2006, Nature.

[172]  E. Kandel,et al.  Common molecular mechanisms in explicit and implicit memory , 2006, Journal of neurochemistry.

[173]  M. Mesulam.  Brain, Mind, and the Evolution of Connectivity , 2000, Brain and Cognition.

[174]  Jon Cohen.  Relative Differences: The Myth of 1% , 2007, Science.

[175]  W H Calvin,et al.  The emergence of intelligence. , 1994, Scientific American.

[176]  Philipp Khaitovich,et al.  Human brain evolution. , 2006, Progress in brain research.

[177]  G. Vallortigara.  The evolutionary psychology of left and right: costs and benefits of lateralization. , 2006, Developmental psychobiology.

[178]  A. H. Weaver,et al.  Reciprocal evolution of the cerebellum and neocortex in fossil humans. , 2005, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America.

[179]  R. Bingham,et al.  The adaptive nature of the human neurocognitive architecture: an alternative model. , 1998, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America.

[180]  F. Sanides.  Comparative neurology of the temporal lobe in primates including man with reference to speech , 1975, Brain and Language.

[181]  T. Crow,et al.  Accelerated evolution of Protocadherin11X/Y: A candidate gene‐pair for cerebral asymmetry and language , 2006, American journal of medical genetics. Part B, Neuropsychiatric genetics : the official publication of the International Society of Psychiatric Genetics.

[182]  Leslie G. Ungerleider,et al.  Dissociation of object and spatial visual processing pathways in human extrastriate cortex. , 1991, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America.

[183]  J. Dawson.  AN ANTHROPOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVE ON THE EVOLUTION AND LATERALIZATION OF THE BRAIN , 1977, Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences.

[184]  D. Falk,et al.  Comparative anatomy of the larynx in man and the chimpanzee: implications for language in Neanderthal. , 1975, American journal of physical anthropology.

[185]  K. Zilles,et al.  Evolution of the brainstem orofacial motor system in primates: a comparative study of trigeminal, facial, and hypoglossal nuclei. , 2005, Journal of human evolution.

[186]  E. Hirasaki,et al.  Volumetric comparisons in the cerebellar complex of anthropoids, with special reference to locomotor types. , 1997, American journal of physical anthropology.

[187]  L. Parr,et al.  Emotional communication in primates: implications for neurobiology , 2005, Current Opinion in Neurobiology.

[188]  P. Rakic,et al.  Radial unit hypothesis of neocortical expansion. , 2000, Novartis Foundation symposium.

[189]  Wenbo Xu,et al.  Sister grouping of chimpanzees and humans as revealed by genome-wide phylogenetic analysis of brain gene expression profiles. , 2004, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America.

[190]  Leslie Goldsmith,et al.  Putting Language Back in the Body: Speech and Gesture on Three Time Frames , 2002, Developmental neuropsychology.

[191]  Thomas Arendt,et al.  Tau gene (MAPT) sequence variation among primates. , 2004, Gene.

[192]  Matthew A. Zapala,et al.  Elevated gene expression levels distinguish human from non-human primate brains , 2003, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America.

[193]  Harry J. Jerison,et al.  DISCUSSION PAPER: THE PALEONEUROLOGY OF LANGUAGE * , 1976 .

[194]  R. Passingham,et al.  Broca's area and the origins of human vocal skill. , 1981, Philosophical transactions of the Royal Society of London. Series B, Biological sciences.

[195]  W. Calvin.  The brain as a Darwin Machine , 1987, Nature.

[196]  R. Yunes.  The evolution of the human mind and logic--mathematics structures. , 2005, Journal of theoretical biology.

[197]  A. Andrés,et al.  Comparative Genetics of Functional Trinucleotide Tandem Repeats in Humans and Apes , 2004, Journal of Molecular Evolution.

[198]  M. Brüne.  Social cognition and psychopathology in an evolutionary perspective. Current status and proposals for research. , 2001, Psychopathology.

[199]  Tobias Pv.  The anatomy of hominization. , 1981 .

[200]  Warren H. Fay,et al.  A human sound transducer/reproducer: Temporal capabilities of a profoundly echolalic child , 1977, Brain and Language.

[201]  F. Schasfoort,et al.  Available online at www.sciencedirect.com , 2004 .

[202]  E Garcia-Rill,et al.  Chemical activation of the mesencephalic locomotor region. , 1985, Brain research.

[203]  J. L. Kavanau,et al.  Evolutionary approaches to understanding sleep. , 2005 .

[204]  Michael C. Corballis,et al.  FOXP2 and the mirror system , 2004, Trends in Cognitive Sciences.

[205]  S. Rapoport.  Hypothesis: Alzheimer's disease is a phylogenetic disease. , 1989, Medical hypotheses.

[206]  A. Gramsbergen.  Postural Control in Man: The Phylogenetic Perspective , 2005, Neural plasticity.

[207]  T. Mikkelsen,et al.  A Human-Specific Gene in Microglia , 2005, Science.

[208]  H. Schierhorn.  [Structural change in neocortical pyramidal neurons in man in the 5th to 9th decade]. , 1981, Psychiatrie, Neurologie, und medizinische Psychologie.

[209]  J. Hyvärinen.  Posterior parietal lobe of the primate brain. , 1982, Physiological reviews.

[210]  K Matsuyama,et al.  Supraspinal sites that induce locomotion in the vertebrate central nervous system. , 2001, Advances in neurology.

[211]  Rapoport Si.  Brain evolution and Alzheimer's disease. , 1988 .

[212]  O. Selnes.  The Ontogeny of Cerebral Language Dominance , 2000, Brain and Language.

[213]  C. Marsden,et al.  Human walking and higher‐level gait disorders, particularly in the elderly , 1993, Neurology.

[214]  T. V. Chernigovskaya,et al.  The mirror brain, concepts, and language: The price of anthropogenesis , 2007, Neuroscience and Behavioral Physiology.

[215]  J. Eccles.  Brain, speech and consciousness , 1973, Naturwissenschaften.

[216]  J L Ringo,et al.  Neuronal interconnection as a function of brain size. , 1991, Brain, behavior and evolution.

[217]  S. Rose,et al.  The biology of the future and the future of biology. , 2002, Journal of molecular biology.

[218]  P. M. S. Hacker,et al.  Emotion and cortical-subcortical function: conceptual developments , 2005, Progress in Neurobiology.

[219]  I. Black.  Genes, Brain, and Mind: the Evolution of Cognition , 1998, Neuron.

[220]  A. Braun,et al.  Asymmetry of chimpanzee planum temporale: humanlike pattern of Wernicke's brain language area homolog. , 1998, Science.

[221]  M. Pritz,et al.  Hindbrain Development and Evolution: Past, Present, and Future , 2005, Brain, Behavior and Evolution.

[222]  Barbara L Finlay,et al.  Scaling of neuron number and volume of the pulvinar complex in new world primates: Comparisons with humans, other primates, and mammals , 2007, The Journal of comparative neurology.

[223]  E. Armstrong.  Enlarged limbic structures in the human brain: the anterior thalamus and medial mamillary body , 1986, Brain Research.

[224]  M. Brüne.  Schizophrenia—an evolutionary enigma? , 2004, Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews.

[225]  A. Kling.  Ontogenetic and Phylogenetic Studies on the Amygdaloid Nuclei , 1966, Psychosomatic medicine.

[226]  Nicole Barger,et al.  A comparative volumetric analysis of the amygdaloid complex and basolateral division in the human and ape brain. , 2007, American journal of physical anthropology.

[227]  Elizabeth Pennisi.  Mining the Molecules That Made Our Mind , 2006, Science.

[228]  M. Wiesendanger,et al.  Manual dexterity and the making of tools – an introduction from an evolutionary perspective , 1999, Experimental Brain Research.

[229]  Wendy Roberts,et al.  Absence of a paternally inherited FOXP2 gene in developmental verbal dyspraxia. , 2006, American journal of human genetics.

[230]  C. Lovejoy.  The origin of man. , 1981, Science.

[231]  P. Tyrrell.  Apraxia of gait or higher level gait disorders: review and description of two cases of progressive gait disturbance due to frontal lobe degeneration. , 1994, Journal of the Royal Society of Medicine.

[232]  J. Allman,et al.  The Anterior Cingulate Cortex , 2001, Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences.

[233]  B. Ska,et al.  Interaction between verbal and gestural language in progressive aphasia: A longitudinal case study , 1992, Brain and Language.

[234]  Ernst Fehr,et al.  Human altruism: economic, neural, and evolutionary perspectives , 2004, Current Opinion in Neurobiology.

[235]  New findings on cortical anatomy and implications for investigating the evolution of language. , 2003, The anatomical record. Part A, Discoveries in molecular, cellular, and evolutionary biology.

[236]  G. Innocenti.  Exuberant development of connections, and its possible permissive role in cortical evolution , 1995, Trends in Neurosciences.

[237]  R. Keynes,et al.  Role of morphogens in brain growth. , 2005, Journal of neurobiology.

[238]  T. Crow,et al.  A theory of the evolutionary origins of psychosis , 1995, European Neuropsychopharmacology.

[239]  O. Tzeng,et al.  Search for a common neurocognitive mechanism for language and movements. , 1984, The American journal of physiology.

[240]  S. Rapoport.  Integrated phylogeny of the primate brain, with special reference to humans and their diseases , 1990, Brain Research Reviews.

[241]  R. Pitt.  Warfare and hominid brain evolution. , 1978, Journal of theoretical biology.

[242]  G. Yeni-Komshian,et al.  Anatomical study of cerebral asymmetry in the temporal lobe of humans, chimpanzees, and rhesus monkeys. , 1976, Science.

[243]  J. L. Kavanau,et al.  Sleep researchers need to bring Darwin on board: elucidating functions of sleep via adaptedness and natural selection. , 2004, Medical hypotheses.

[244]  B Weiss,et al.  The developing brain and the environment: an introduction. , 2000, Environmental health perspectives.

[245]  T. Chaminade,et al.  Neural correlates of Early Stone Age toolmaking: technology, language and cognition in human evolution , 2008, Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences.

[246]  R. Holloway,.  PALEONEUROLOGICAL EVIDENCE FOR LANGUAGE ORIGINS , 1976, Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences.

[247]  J. Grafman,et al.  The Human Amygdala: An Evolved System for Relevance Detection , 2003, Reviews in the neurosciences.

[248]  T. Chaminade,et al.  The evolutionary neuroscience of tool making , 2007, Neuropsychologia.

[249]  S. Horvath,et al.  Conservation and evolution of gene coexpression networks in human and chimpanzee brains , 2006, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences.

[250]  C. Phillips.  Culture, Social Minds, and Governance in Evolution , 2001, Politics and the Life Sciences.

[251]  S. Antón.  Climatic Influences on the Evolution of Early Homo? , 2007, Folia Primatologica.

[252]  J. Eccles.  Evolution of consciousness. , 1992, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America.

[253]  Jianzhi Zhang,et al.  More genes underwent positive selection in chimpanzee evolution than in human evolution , 2007, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences.

[254]  H J Jerison.  The paleoneurology of language. , 1976, Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences.

[255]  Timothy Edward John Behrens,et al.  The evolution of prefrontal inputs to the cortico-pontine system: diffusion imaging evidence from Macaque monkeys and humans. , 2006, Cerebral cortex.

[256]  F. Previc.  Dopamine and the Origins of Human Intelligence , 1999, Brain and Cognition.

[257]  W. Leonard.  Food for thought. Dietary change was a driving force in human evolution. , 2002, Scientific American.

[258]  G. Winterer,et al.  Genetics of human prefrontal function , 2003, Brain Research Reviews.

[259]  J. Kaas,et al.  Visual cortex organization in primates: theories of V3 and adjoining visual areas. , 2001, Progress in brain research.

[260]  R. Llinás,et al.  Consciousness and the Brain , 2001 .

[261]  D. Neill.  Cortical evolution and human behaviour , 2007, Brain Research Bulletin.

[262]  K Zilles,et al.  Limbic frontal cortex in hominoids: a comparative study of area 13. , 1998, American journal of physical anthropology.

[263]  R. Corruccini,et al.  Primate facial allometry and interpretations of australopithecine variation , 1979, Nature.

[264]  M. Sereno,et al.  From monkeys to humans: what do we now know about brain homologies? , 2005, Current Opinion in Neurobiology.