Gender and ethnicity differences in the prevalence of traumatic events: evidence from a New Zealand community sample

One thousand five hundred community residing New Zealand adults were assessed regarding their experience of traumatic events. Sixty-one per cent of those surveyed reported exposure to a traumatic event during their lifetime. Unexpected death of a close friend or relative was the most prevalent traumatic experience for the present sample, whereas combat and natural disasters were the least prevalent traumatic events. Consistent with prior research demonstrating gender differences in exposure to traumatic events, child and adult sexual assault was more common among women, and motor vehicle accidents and combat were more common among men. The present study also found that Maori individuals (indigenous people) had experienced a number of traumatic events to a greater extent than their European counterparts. These results are discussed within the New Zealand social context. Copyright © 2004 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

[1]  Jacob Cohen.  Statistical Power Analysis for the Behavioral Sciences , 1969, The SAGE Encyclopedia of Research Design.

[2]  R. Turner,et al.  Cumulative adversity and posttraumatic stress disorder: evidence from a diverse community sample of young adults. , 2003, The American journal of orthopsychiatry.

[3]  L. Cortina,et al.  Gender, victimization, and outcomes: reconceptualizing risk. , 2003, Journal of consulting and clinical psychology.

[4]  Debby E. Doughty,et al.  Posttraumatic stress and functional impairment in Kenyan children following the 1998 American Embassy bombing. , 2003, The American journal of orthopsychiatry.

[5]  R. Eidelson,et al.  The Impact of September 11 on Psychologists , 2003 .

[6]  Ebru Salcioglu,et al.  LONG-TERM PSYCHOLOGICAL OUTCOME FOR NON-TREATMENT-SEEKING EARTHQUAKE SURVIVORS IN TURKEY , 2003, The Journal of nervous and mental disease.

[7]  John-Paul Wilson,et al.  PSTD, major depressive symptoms, and substance abuse following September 11, 2001, in a midwestern university population. , 2003, International journal of emergency mental health.

[8]  K. Bhui,et al.  Traumatic events, migration characteristics and psychiatric symptoms among Somali refugees , 2003, Social Psychiatry and Psychiatric Epidemiology.

[9]  A. Shalev,et al.  Gender Differences in Responses to Traumatic Events: A Prospective Study , 2002, Journal of traumatic stress.

[10]  M. van Ommeren,et al.  Effect of Political Imprisonment and Trauma History on Recent Tibetan Refugees in India , 2002, Journal of traumatic stress.

[11]  M. Hotopf,et al.  Self-reported health of Persian Gulf War veterans: a comparison of help-seeking and randomly ascertained cases. , 2002, Military medicine.

[12]  Anne C. Gill.  Risk factors for pediatric posttraumatic stress disorder after traumatic injury. , 2002, Archives of psychiatric nursing.

[13]  Z. Steel,et al.  Range and dimensions of trauma experienced by bosnian refugees resettled in Australia , 2002 .

[14]  C. Peterson,et al.  War-Related Trauma and Symptoms of Posttraumatic Stress Disorder Among Adult Kosovar Refugees , 2002, Journal of traumatic stress.

[15]  M. Zelenova,et al.  Psychological Characteristics of Post-traumatic Stress States in Afghan War Veterans , 2001 .

[16]  C. Brewin,et al.  Meta-analysis of risk factors for posttraumatic stress disorder in trauma-exposed adults. , 2000, Journal of consulting and clinical psychology.

[17]  S. Williams,et al.  Trends in Maori Mental Health in Otago , 2000, The Australian and New Zealand journal of psychiatry.

[18]  S. Wilkie.  The traumatic effects of wife -beating: An ecological perspective , 2000 .

[19]  N. Kazantzis,et al.  Health care needs for older Maori: A study of Kaumatua and Kuia , 1999 .

[20]  K. Chamberlain,et al.  Posttraumatic Stress Disorder and Interpersonal Functioning in Vietnam War Veterans: A Mediational Model , 1999, Journal of traumatic stress.

[21]  J. Thayer,et al.  Relations among psychological trauma, dissociative phenomena, and trauma-related distress: a review and integration. , 1999, Clinical psychology review.

[22]  David R. Williams,et al.  Race, stress, and physical health: The role of group identity. , 1999 .

[23]  Lynda A. King,et al.  Modeling Physical Health and Functional Health Status: The Role of Combat Exposure, Posttraumatic Stress Disorder, and Personal Resource Attributes , 1999, Journal of traumatic stress.

[24]  P. Trapnell,et al.  Ethnicity, desirable responding, and self-reports of abuse: a comparison of European- and Asian-ancestry undergraduates. , 1999, Journal of consulting and clinical psychology.

[25]  K. Calhoun,et al.  Prevalence of Traumatic Events and Peritraumatic Predictors of Posttraumatic Stress Symptoms in a Nonclinical Sample of College Students , 1998, Journal of traumatic stress.

[26]  D. Servan-Schreiber,et al.  Prevalence of posttraumatic stress disorder and major depressive disorder in Tibetan refugee children. , 1998, Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry.

[27]  R. Kessler,et al.  Trauma and posttraumatic stress disorder in the community: the 1996 Detroit Area Survey of Trauma. , 1998, Archives of general psychiatry.

[28]  R. Stretch,et al.  Effects of premilitary and military trauma on the development of post-traumatic stress disorder symptoms in female and male active duty soldiers. , 1998, Military medicine.

[29]  D. Primorac,et al.  Psychological characteristics of wounded and disabled Croatian war veterans. , 1998, Military medicine.

[30]  B. Frueh,et al.  Racial differences in combat-related PTSD: empirical findings and conceptual issues. , 1998, Clinical psychology review.

[31]  D. Grayson,et al.  Current combat-related disorders in the absence of PTSD among Australian Vietnam veterans , 1998, Social Psychiatry and Psychiatric Epidemiology.

[32]  C. G. Watson,et al.  Lifetime prevalences of nine common psychiatric/personality disorders in female domestic abuse survivors. , 1997, Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease.

[33]  M. Stein,et al.  Full and partial posttraumatic stress disorder: findings from a community survey. , 1997, The American journal of psychiatry.

[34]  J. Haythornthwaite,et al.  Preburn psychiatric history affects posttrauma morbidity. , 1997, Psychosomatics.

[35]  H. Reppesgaard.  Studies on psychosocial problems among displaced people in Sri Lanka , 1997 .

[36]  N. Breslau,et al.  Psychiatric sequelae of posttraumatic stress disorder in women. , 1997, Archives of general psychiatry.

[37]  P. Shrout,et al.  PTSD Symptoms and Comorbid Mental Disorders in Israeli War Veterans , 1996, British Journal of Psychiatry.

[38]  J. E. Hovens,et al.  Prevalence and Course of Posttraumatic Stress Disorder in Dutch Veterans of the Civilian Resistance during World War II: An Overview , 1996, Psychological reports.

[39]  J. Siegel,et al.  Traumatic events and physical health in a community sample , 1996, Journal of traumatic stress.

[40]  R. Kessler,et al.  Posttraumatic stress disorder in the National Comorbidity Survey. , 1995, Archives of general psychiatry.

[41]  Ian H. Gotlib,et al.  Stress and Mental Health: Contemporary Issues and Prospects for the Future. , 1995 .

[42]  P. Omidian,et al.  Afghan Health Education Project: a community survey. , 1995, Public health nursing.

[43]  A. Beal.  Post-traumatic stress disorder in prisoners of war and combat veterans of the Dieppe Raid: a 50-year follow-up. , 1995, Canadian journal of psychiatry. Revue canadienne de psychiatrie.

[44]  M. Sungur,et al.  Common Features of PTSD Cases Amongst a Group of Military Staff Referred From the Southeast Region of Turkey , 1995, Journal of Cognitive Psychotherapy.

[45]  J. Golding.  Sexual assault history and physical health in randomly selected Los Angeles women , 1994 .

[46]  Dc Washington.  Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, 4th Ed. , 1994 .

[47]  B. Wheaton.  Sampling the Stress Universe , 1994 .

[48]  Mason Durie,et al.  Whaiora : Māori health development , 1994 .

[49]  J. Golding.  Sexual assault history and physical health in randomly selected Los Angeles women. , 1994, Health psychology : official journal of the Division of Health Psychology, American Psychological Association.

[50]  K. Chamberlain,et al.  The health and mental health of New Zealand Vietnam war veterans with posttraumatic stress disorder. , 1992, The New Zealand medical journal.

[51]  A. McFarlane,et al.  Multiple Diagnoses in Posttraumatic Stress Disorder in the Victims of a Natural Disaster , 1992, The Journal of nervous and mental disease.

[52]  F H Norris,et al.  Epidemiology of trauma: frequency and impact of different potentially traumatic events on different demographic groups. , 1992, Journal of consulting and clinical psychology.

[53]  H. Resnick,et al.  Assessment of rape-related posttraumatic stress disorder: Stressor and symptom dimensions. , 1991 .

[54]  J. Davidson,et al.  Post-traumatic stress disorder in the community: an epidemiological study , 1991, Psychological Medicine.

[55]  N. Breslau,et al.  Traumatic events and posttraumatic stress disorder in an urban population of young adults. , 1991, Archives of general psychiatry.

[56]  J Langers,et al.  Demographic Trends , 1992, Marriage, Divorce, Remarriage.

[57]  F. Norris.  Screening for Traumatic Stress: A Scale for Use in the General Population1 , 1990 .

[58]  J. E. Wells,et al.  Christchurch psychiatric epidemiology study: use of mental health services. , 1990, The New Zealand medical journal.

[59]  P. Lachenbruch.  Statistical Power Analysis for the Behavioral Sciences (2nd ed.) , 1989 .

[60]  R. Kendell.  Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, 3rd ed , 1980 .