The Influence of Parental Involvement on the Well-Being of Sons and Daughters.

Research has found substantial evidence that high levels of parental involvement significantly affect adolescent well-being (Furstenberg, Morgan, & Allison, 1987; LeCroy, 1988; Richards, Gitelson, Peterson, & Hurtig, 1991). Some findings reveal differences in the effects of parental involvement by the gender of the adolescent. Previous research also indicates that maternal and paternal influences on adolescent well-being vary (Barber & Thomas, 1986; Gecas & Schwalbe, 1986). However, few of these studies have utilized longitudinal data to examine long-term influences of parental involvement in childhood on adolescent well-being. Additionally, while some evidence suggests that paternal presence is more important for adolescent well-being than parental involvement (Furstenberg et al., 1987), virtually none of the previous research addresses the relative effects of the loss of paternal presence and the nature of the parent/child relationship. In this study, we use longitudinal data from the National Survey of Children to examine the influence of mother and father involvement during childhood and adolescence on the well-being of sons and daughters. Three independent measures of well-being--self-esteem, life-satisfaction, and mental health--are analyzed. The impact of children's perceptions of parental factors important for the well-being of girls and boys is compared. Finally, the relative influence of the loss of father presence and parental involvement is assessed. PARENTAL INVOLVEMENT AND ADOLESCENT WELL-BEING The family is thought to be an important context for the development of long-term general well-being (Rollins & Thomas, 1979). The basis for mental well-being evolves in interaction with others, most notably in role playing, the majority of which occurs in childhood (Rosenberg, 1979). Thus, the involvement of parents with children has many implications for long-term well-being. However, while parental involvement with children forms a basis for well-being in adulthood, it is not the sole predictor. Among adult children, positive relationships with parents reduce psychological distress. Relationships with both mothers and fathers are salient determinants of sons' mental health, but the relationship with fathers is somewhat more important (Barnett, Marshall, & Pleck, 1992). For daughters, the effects of the relationship with both mother and father are about the same (Barnett, Kibria, Baruch, & Pleck, 1991). These results suggest that childhood, as well as ongoing, parent-child relations affect children's well-being. The basis for well-being is different for girls and boys because they seek substantively different kinds of approval from parents (Wood, Rhodes, & Whelan, 1989). Boys primarily gain their sense of worth from achievement in activities. Receiving respect from parents and spending time with parents are likely to have positive effects on boys' sense of self-worth. Given the importance of gender role models, it is particularly important for boys to receive this attention from fathers (Gecas & Schwalbe, 1986). Girls, on the other hand, tend to gain their sense of worth from a sense of social and moral acceptability. The perception of feeling loved and close to parents and the desire to be like parents are likely to be particularly important for girls' sense of self-worth, although this type of support has been shown to influence boys as well (Barber & Thomas, 1986; Openshaw, Thomas, & Rollins, 1983). The empirical evidence of the influence of parental involvement on children's well-being for the most part supports a positive relationship (Lamb, 1986, 1987; LeCroy, 1988; Richards et al., 1991). Often, however, previous research has examined only intact households (with both a mother and a father present). Thus, the impact of parental presence and the nature of parental involvement cannot be discerned. Furstenberg et al. (1987) examined the impact of paternal involvement on children when a father is lost, but they included only children who had experienced marital disruption. …