Virtually Real: A Psychological Perspective on Massively Multiplayer Online Games

Massively multiplayer games (MMOs) are immersive virtual three-dimensional fantasy worlds in which people cooperate and compete with each other, as well as with the computer-generated denizens of that particular game world. Although typically seen as games, their strong social aspect suggests that they are a form of online communication tool, with which players interact to form friendships, create communities, and work together to accomplish a variety of goals. After an introduction to MMOs, this review explores how social aspects of the game imitate the real world in terms of choices that players make when interacting with others. Furthermore, player-to-player interactions are examined in terms of in-game group formation and how efficient communication is imperative for goal achievement. The review also explores how leadership skills learned in-game may be transferred to real-world scenarios. The reasons why people play MMOs are examined in terms of player motivations and how aspects of game play may have both positive and negative consequences for a player's well-being. The latter half of the review describes how MMOs are used as afterschool virtual teaching environments where students can use aspects of game play to learn, for example, leadership qualities. The review concludes with recommendations for using MMOs as virtual laboratories to explore aspects of human behavior.

[1]  Scott E. Caplan,et al.  Who plays, how much, and why? Debunking the stereotypical gamer profile , 2008, J. Comput. Mediat. Commun..

[2]  Ralph Schroeder,et al.  Avatars at Work and Play: Collaboration and Interaction in Shared Virtual Environments (Computer Supported Cooperative Work) , 2006 .

[3]  Nick Yee,et al.  Motivations for Play in Online Games , 2006, Cyberpsychology Behav. Soc. Netw..

[4]  H. J. Kleinsteuber The Digital Future , 2003 .

[5]  David Myers A Q-Study of Game Player Aesthetics , 1990 .

[6]  David Trend Reading Digital Culture , 2001 .

[7]  Etienne Wenger,et al.  Situated Learning: Legitimate Peripheral Participation , 1991 .

[8]  D. M. Georgoff,et al.  Harvard Business Review: David M. Georgoff and Robert G. Murdick, manager's guide to forecasting, 64 (Jan-Feb.) (1986) 110-120 , 1988 .

[9]  Dmitri Williams,et al.  The Video Game Lightning Rod , 2003 .

[10]  J. Huizinga Homo Ludens: A Study of the Play-Element in Culture , 1938 .

[11]  Robert J. Moore,et al.  Building an MMO With Mass Appeal , 2006 .

[12]  B. Roche,et al.  The Behavior of Organisms? , 1997 .

[13]  G. Watson Social psychology; issues and insights , 1966 .

[14]  J. Bailenson,et al.  The Proteus Effect: The Effect of Transformed Self-Representation on Behavior , 2007 .

[15]  Robert J. Moore,et al.  More than just 'XP': learning social skills in massively multiplayer online games , 2005, Interact. Technol. Smart Educ..

[16]  Jessica Wolfendale,et al.  My avatar, my self: Virtual harm and attachment , 2007, Ethics and Information Technology.

[17]  Dc Washington Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, 4th Ed. , 1994 .

[18]  Akira Sakamoto,et al.  Video Game Use and The Development of Sociocognitive Abilities in Children: Three Surveys of Elementary School Students1 , 1994 .

[19]  Michèle Companion,et al.  The Influence of Sex on Character Attribute Preferences , 2008, Cyberpsychology Behav. Soc. Netw..

[20]  Daniel L. King,et al.  The Psychological Study of Video Game Players: Methodological Challenges and Practical Advice , 2009, International Journal of Mental Health and Addiction.

[21]  Goknur Kaplan Akilli,et al.  Games and Simulations: A New Approach in Education , 2009 .

[22]  Tracy L. M. Kennedy,et al.  Behind the Avatar: The Patterns, Practices, and Functions of Role Playing in MMOs , 2011, Games Cult..

[23]  Robert J. Moore,et al.  Gaining more than experience points: Learning social behavior in multiplayer computer games , 2004 .

[24]  David Coyle,et al.  Computers in talk-based mental health interventions , 2007, Interact. Comput..

[25]  P. Greenfield,et al.  Action video games and informal education: Effects on strategies for dividing visual attention , 1994 .

[26]  Kerry Freedman,et al.  The importance of computer experience, learning processes, and communication patterns in multicultural networking , 1996 .

[27]  Ting-Jui Chou,et al.  The Role of Flow Experience in Cyber-Game Addiction , 2003, Cyberpsychology Behav. Soc. Netw..

[28]  Todd Bryant,et al.  Using World of Warcraft and Other MMORPGs to Foster a Targeted, Social, and Cooperative Approach Toward Language Learning , 2006 .

[29]  Nick Yee,et al.  The Demographics, Motivations, and Derived Experiences of Users of Massively Multi-User Online Graphical Environments , 2006, PRESENCE: Teleoperators and Virtual Environments.

[30]  Joel E. Foreman Next-Generation Educational Technology versus the Lecture. , 2003 .

[31]  N. Yee The Psychology of Massively Multi-User Online Role-Playing Games: Motivations, Emotional Investment, Relationships and Problematic Usage , 2005 .

[32]  E. Walker,et al.  Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders , 2013 .

[33]  Lisa Nakamura "Race In/For Cyberspace: Identity Tourism and Racial Passing on the Internet" by , 2005 .

[34]  N. Yee,et al.  The psychology of massively multi-user online role-playing games: Motivations , 2005 .

[35]  J. Moran-Ellis The ambiguity of play , 1998 .

[36]  M. Griffiths The Role of Context in Online Gaming Excess and Addiction: Some Case Study Evidence , 2009, International Journal of Mental Health and Addiction.

[37]  John P. Charlton,et al.  Distinguishing addiction and high engagement in the context of online game playing , 2007, Comput. Hum. Behav..

[38]  Noah Wardrip-Fruin,et al.  Second Person: Role-Playing and Story in Games and Playable Media , 2007 .

[39]  Katherine M Flegal,et al.  Mean body weight, height, and body mass index, United States 1960-2002. , 2004, Advance data.

[40]  J. Bryant,et al.  Playing video games: Motives, responses, and consequences. , 2012 .

[41]  A. Mehrabian,et al.  Preferences for Individual Video Games as a Function of Their Emotional Effects on Players , 1986 .

[42]  Zaheer Hussain,et al.  Gender Swapping and Socializing in Cyberspace: An Exploratory Study , 2008, Cyberpsychology Behav. Soc. Netw..

[43]  Elizabeth Wack,et al.  Relationships between Electronic Game Play, Obesity, and Psychosocial Functioning in Young Men , 2009, Cyberpsychology Behav. Soc. Netw..

[44]  Ross MacDonald,et al.  Play between Worlds: Exploring Online Game Culture , 2007 .

[45]  Mark A. Barnett,et al.  Late Adolescents' Experiences With and Attitudes Toward Videogames1 , 1997 .

[46]  C. Ferguson Evidence for publication bias in video game violence effects literature: A meta-analytic review , 2007 .

[47]  David Smahel,et al.  Playing MMORPGs: Connections between Addiction and Identifying with a Character , 2008, Cyberpsychology Behav. Soc. Netw..

[48]  Peter Senge,et al.  In praise of the incomplete leader , 2007, IEEE Engineering Management Review.

[49]  Ronald E. Dahl,et al.  Sad Kids, Sad Media? Applying Mood Management Theory to Depressed Adolescents' Use of Media , 2008, Media psychology.

[50]  Lloyd P. Rieber,et al.  Seriously considering play: Designing interactive learning environments based on the blending of microworlds, simulations, and games , 1996 .

[51]  C. Ferguson,et al.  The Hitman Study Violent Video Game Exposure Effects on Aggressive Behavior, Hostile Feelings, and Depression , 2010 .

[52]  Aaron Delwiche,et al.  Massively Multiplayer Online Games (MMOs) in the New Media Classroom , 2006, J. Educ. Technol. Soc..

[53]  M. Griffiths A ‘components’ model of addiction within a biopsychosocial framework , 2005 .

[54]  R. Baumeister,et al.  The need to belong: desire for interpersonal attachments as a fundamental human motivation. , 1995, Psychological bulletin.

[55]  Shang Hwa Hsu,et al.  Exploring user experiences as predictors of MMORPG addiction , 2009, Comput. Educ..

[56]  David Gefen,et al.  Virtual Community Attraction: Why People Hang Out Online , 2006, J. Comput. Mediat. Commun..

[57]  D. Zillmann Mood Management Through Communication Choices , 1988 .

[58]  Griffiths Diagnosis and management of video game addiction , 2008 .

[59]  C. Barnard The Functions of the Executive , 1939 .

[60]  Jeroen S. Lemmens,et al.  Development and Validation of a Game Addiction Scale for Adolescents , 2008 .

[61]  M. Davies,et al.  Online computer gaming: a comparison of adolescent and adult gamers. , 2004, Journal of adolescence.

[62]  David Gibson,et al.  Games And Simulations in Online Learning: Research and Development Frameworks , 2006 .

[63]  Elina M. I. Koivisto,et al.  Defining grief play in MMORPGs: player and developer perceptions , 2004, ACE '04.