An epidemiological assessment of online groups and a test of a typology: What are the (dis)similarities of the online group types?

A vast multitude of online groups exist, and authors have been rapidly investigating their dynamics. Extant studies have provided great information on the effects of online group membership, but limitations are often noted in these studies. Amongst the most concerning limitations are issues of generalizability. Authors are often unsure whether their results are able to generalize to other online groups, including those that are seemingly similar. For this reason, some researchers have created typologies of online groups, in hopes that online groups that fall within the same category will be generalizable; however, no study has analyzed the merit of an online group typology, and conclusions are based upon speculation. For this reason, the current study analyzed the dynamics of three different online groups, which fall within separate categories of an online group typology: a cancer support forum, a LGBT forum, and a Harry Potter fan forum. The results demonstrate that these groups vary in their properties, including group members' group identity, well-being, and social support. These results provide support for an online group typology, and precisely demonstrate in what manner these groups differ. Additionally, the results offer valuable information about the individual groups, as some variables were previously unstudied in some group types. The discovery of these previously unknown dynamics leads to the potential of new studies, which is discussed. Therefore, the current study provides important implications for future studies, as well as the interpretation of future research results.

[1]  Soraya Mehdizadeh,et al.  Self-Presentation 2.0: Narcissism and Self-Esteem on Facebook , 2010, Cyberpsychology Behav. Soc. Netw..

[2]  Junghyun Kim,et al.  The effect of uniform virtual appearance on conformity intention: Social identity model of deindividuation effects and optimal distinctiveness theory , 2011, Comput. Hum. Behav..

[3]  Janet K. Swim,et al.  Sexism and racism: Old-fashioned and modern prejudices. , 1995 .

[4]  Jong-Eun Roselyn Lee,et al.  When Playing Together Feels Different: Effects of Task Types and Social Contexts on Physiological Arousal in Multiplayer Online Gaming Contexts , 2009, Cyberpsychology Behav. Soc. Netw..

[5]  M. Frazier,et al.  Voice Climate, Work Outcomes, and the Mediating Role of Psychological Empowerment , 2012 .

[6]  Martial Van der Linden,et al.  Why do you play World of Warcraft? An in-depth exploration of self-reported motivations to play online and in-game behaviours in the virtual world of Azeroth , 2013, Comput. Hum. Behav..

[7]  T. Judge,et al.  THE CORE SELF‐EVALUATIONS SCALE: DEVELOPMENT OF A MEASURE , 2003 .

[8]  Eliot R. Smith,et al.  Attachment to groups: theory and measurement. , 1999, Journal of personality and social psychology.

[9]  Temperament, recalled parenting styles, and self-regulation: Testing the developmental postulates of self-discrepancy theory. , 1998 .

[10]  Lauren E. Sherman,et al.  Forging friendship, soliciting support: A mixed-method examination of message boards for pregnant teens and teen mothers , 2013, Comput. Hum. Behav..

[11]  Katelyn Y. A. McKenna.  Psychological Aspects of Cyberspace: Influences on the Nature and Functioning of Online Groups , 2008 .

[12]  Samuel D. Gosling,et al.  Personality Profiles Associated with Different Motivations for Playing World of Warcraft , 2013, Cyberpsychology Behav. Soc. Netw..

[13]  Sonja Utz,et al.  It Is All About Being Popular: The Effects of Need for Popularity on Social Network Site Use , 2012, Cyberpsychology Behav. Soc. Netw..

[14]  Bertjan Doosje,et al.  Group-level self-definition and self-investment: a hierarchical (multicomponent) model of in-group identification. , 2008, Journal of personality and social psychology.

[15]  R. Kraut,et al.  Membership Claims and Requests: Conversation-Level Newcomer Socialization Strategies in Online Groups , 2010 .

[16]  J. N. Shelton,et al.  The role of racial identity in perceived racial discrimination. , 2003, Journal of personality and social psychology.

[17]  J. Finn,et al.  An exploration of helping processes in an online self-help group focusing on issues of disability. , 1999, Health & social work.

[18]  Ming Liu,et al.  An analysis of social support exchanges in online HIV/AIDS self-help groups , 2009, Comput. Hum. Behav..

[19]  Seung-A. Annie Jin,et al.  "I Feel More Connected to the Physically Ideal Mini Me than the Mirror-Image Mini Me": Theoretical Implications of the "Malleable Self" for Speculations on the Effects of Avatar Creation on Avatar-Self Connection in Wii , 2010, Cyberpsychology Behav. Soc. Netw..

[20]  Ned Kock,et al.  E-Collaboration and E-Commerce In Virtual Worlds: The Potential of Second Life and World of Warcraft , 2008, Int. J. e Collab..

[21]  Anne Goulding,et al.  Virtually homosexual: Technoromanticism, demarginalisation and identity formation among homosexual males , 2013, Comput. Hum. Behav..

[22]  Louis Leung,et al.  Shyness and Locus of Control as Predictors of Internet Addiction and Internet Use , 2004, Cyberpsychology Behav. Soc. Netw..

[23]  Junghyun Kim,et al.  "I want to be different from others in cyberspace" The role of visual similarity in virtual group identity , 2009, Comput. Hum. Behav..

[24]  Matt C. Howard,et al.  To boldly go where no group has gone before: An analysis of online group identity and validation of a measure , 2013, Comput. Hum. Behav..

[25]  M. Antony,et al.  Psychometric properties of the 42-item and 21-item versions of the Depression Anxiety Stress Scales in clinical groups and a community sample. , 1998 .

[26]  Katelyn Y. A. McKenna,et al.  Virtual group dynamics. , 2002 .

[27]  M. Brewer.  The Social Self: On Being the Same and Different at the Same Time , 1991 .

[28]  Eva L. Baker,et al.  Measuring problem solving in computer environments: current and future states , 2002, Comput. Hum. Behav..

[29]  K. Lewin,et al.  Field Theory in Social Science: Selected Theoretical Papers , 1951 .

[30]  M. Janssens,et al.  Alliance Portfolios and Innovation Performance , 2012 .

[31]  E.,et al.  Self-Discrepancy : A Theory Relating Self and Affect , 2022 .

[32]  Thomas O. Blank,et al.  The who and the what of usage of two cancer online communities , 2007, Comput. Hum. Behav..

[33]  N. Norvell,et al.  Perceived social support, social skills, and quality of relationships in bulimic women. , 1992, Journal of consulting and clinical psychology.

[34]  Holly Schiffrin,et al.  The Associations among Computer-Mediated Communication, Relationships, and Well-being , 2010, Cyberpsychology Behav. Soc. Netw..

[35]  C. Steele,et al.  Ambient belonging: how stereotypical cues impact gender participation in computer science. , 2009, Journal of personality and social psychology.

[36]  M. Shih,et al.  Working to reduce the effects of discrimination: Identity management strategies in organizations. , 2013, The American psychologist.

[37]  Uwe Matzat,et al.  A theory of relational signals in online groups , 2009, New Media Soc..

[38]  P. Klemm,et al.  Online Cancer Support Groups: A Review of the Research Literature , 2003, Computers, informatics, nursing : CIN.

[39]  Namkee Park,et al.  Parasocial Interaction with My Avatar: Effects of Interdependent Self-Construal and the Mediating Role of Self-Presence in an Avatar-Based Console Game, Wii , 2009, Cyberpsychology Behav. Soc. Netw..

[40]  Valerie Barker,et al.  Older Adolescents' Motivations for Social Network Site Use: The Influence of Gender, Group Identity, and Collective Self-Esteem , 2009, Cyberpsychology Behav. Soc. Netw..

[41]  Ali Ahmed,et al.  Group identity, social distance and intergroup bias , 2007 .

[42]  Constance Elise Porter,et al.  A Typology of Virtual Communities: A Multi-Disciplinary Foundation for Future Research , 2006, J. Comput. Mediat. Commun..

[43]  M. Brewer,et al.  The importance of being we: human nature and intergroup relations. , 2007, The American psychologist.

[44]  Junghyun Kim,et al.  Balancing uniqueness and assimilation in computer-mediated groups , 2010, Comput. Hum. Behav..

[45]  J. Dovidio,et al.  Intergroup bias: status, differentiation, and a common in-group identity. , 1998, Journal of personality and social psychology.

[46]  G. Zimet,et al.  The Multidimensional Scale of Perceived Social Support , 1988 .

[47]  Anita L. Blanchard,et al.  Motivations in virtual health communities and their relationship to community, connectedness and stress , 2013, Comput. Hum. Behav..

[48]  Scott B. MacKenzie,et al.  Common method biases in behavioral research: a critical review of the literature and recommended remedies. , 2003, The Journal of applied psychology.

[49]  Jonathon N. Cummings,et al.  Beyond hearing: Where the real-world and online support meet. , 2002 .

[50]  Mei-Lien Young,et al.  The Virtual Group Identification Process: A Virtual Educational Community Case , 2008, Cyberpsychology Behav. Soc. Netw..

[51]  Reinout W. Wiers,et al.  Online Gaming Addiction? Motives Predict Addictive Play Behavior in Massively Multiplayer Online Role-Playing Games , 2012, Cyberpsychology Behav. Soc. Netw..

[52]  Janet Fulk,et al.  Features and Contexts in Technology Research: A Modest Proposal for Research and Reporting , 2009, J. Comput. Mediat. Commun..

[53]  S. Kiesler,et al.  Internet use and ties that bind. , 1999 .

[54]  Juan Sánchez-Fernández,et al.  Improving retention rate and response quality in Web-based surveys , 2012, Comput. Hum. Behav..

[55]  Andrea Baker,et al.  Psychological Aspects of Cyberspace: Down the Rabbit Hole: The Role of Place in the Initiation and Development of Online Relationships , 2008 .

[56]  Susan M. Wildermuth,et al.  The Effects of Stigmatizing Discourse on the Quality of On-Line Relationships , 2004, Cyberpsychology Behav. Soc. Netw..

[57]  Jutta Heckhausen,et al.  Motivation and action , 1991 .

[58]  Jason T. Siegel,et al.  The effect of informal social support: Face-to-face versus computer-mediated communication , 2011, Comput. Hum. Behav..

[59]  J. W. Atkinson,et al.  On the dynamics of action. , 1970, Nederlands tijdschrift voor de psychologie en haar grensgebieden.

[60]  S Hoey,et al.  Concealable stigmas and positive self-perceptions: feeling better around similar others. , 1998, Journal of personality and social psychology.

[61]  M. Brewer,et al.  Effects of group identity on resource use in a simulated commons dilemma. , 1984, Journal of personality and social psychology.

[62]  T. Strauman,et al.  Temperament, recalled parenting styles, and self-regulation: testing the developmental postulates of self-discrepancy theory. , 1998, Journal of personality and social psychology.

[63]  T V Perneger,et al.  Snowball sampling by mail: application to a survey of smokers in the general population. , 2000, International journal of epidemiology.

[64]  Dominic Abrams,et al.  Collective Identity: Group Membership and Self-Conception , 2008 .

[65]  Sara B. Kiesler,et al.  The Ideal Elf: Identity Exploration in World of Warcraft , 2007, Cyberpsychology Behav. Soc. Netw..

[66]  Cathy Bishop-Clark,et al.  Formation of and Adherence to a Self-Disclosure Norm in an Online Chat , 2005, Cyberpsychology Behav. Soc. Netw..

[67]  Eugene Brusilovskiy,et al.  Internet peer support for individuals with psychiatric disabilities: A randomized controlled trial. , 2011, Social science & medicine.

[68]  M. Smith.  Field Theory in Social Science: Selected Theoretical Papers. , 1951 .

[69]  T. Strauman,et al.  Stability within the self: a longitudinal study of the structural implications of self-discrepancy theory. , 1996, Journal of personality and social psychology.

[70]  R R Troiden,et al.  The formation of homosexual identities. , 1989, Journal of homosexuality.

[71]  D. E. Frable,et al.  Concealable Stigmas and Positive Self-Perceptions: Feeling Better Around Similar Others , 1998 .

[72]  Jesse Fox,et al.  Romantic Relationship Development in the Age of Facebook: An Exploratory Study of Emerging Adults' Perceptions, Motives, and Behaviors , 2013, Cyberpsychology Behav. Soc. Netw..

[73]  H. Tajfel,et al.  An integrative theory of intergroup conflict. , 1979 .

[74]  N. Coulson,et al.  Social support in cyberspace: a content analysis of communication within a Huntington's disease online support group. , 2007, Patient education and counseling.

[75]  C. Cogliser,et al.  Big Five Personality Factors and Leader Emergence in Virtual Teams , 2012 .

[76]  E. Higgins,et al.  Self-discrepancies and emotional vulnerability: how magnitude, accessibility, and type of discrepancy influence affect. , 1986, Journal of personality and social psychology.

[77]  Geoffrey L. Cohen,et al.  A question of belonging: race, social fit, and achievement. , 2007, Journal of personality and social psychology.

[78]  Jennifer Tichon,et al.  The Process of Sharing Social Support in Cyberspace , 2003, Cyberpsychology Behav. Soc. Netw..

[79]  Jacob Cohen.  Statistical Power Analysis for the Behavioral Sciences , 1969, The SAGE Encyclopedia of Research Design.

[80]  K. Roen,et al.  Hard-to-Reach Youth Online: Methodological Advances in Self-Harm Research , 2013 .

[81]  Kevin Wise,et al.  The Real You? The Role of Visual Cues and Comment Congruence in Perceptions of Social Attractiveness from Facebook Profiles , 2012, Cyberpsychology Behav. Soc. Netw..

[82]  Ruben Fukkink,et al.  Peer Counseling in an Online Chat Service: A Content Analysis of Social Support , 2011, Cyberpsychology Behav. Soc. Netw..

[83]  Bradley C. Love,et al.  Exploring Psychosocial Support Online: A Content Analysis of Messages in an Adolescent and Young Adult Cancer Community , 2012, Cyberpsychology Behav. Soc. Netw..

[84]  G. Brody,et al.  Linking parental socialization to interpersonal protective processes, academic self-presentation, and expectations among rural African American youth. , 2009, Cultural diversity & ethnic minority psychology.

[85]  John Orbell,et al.  Not me or thee but we: the importance of group identity in eliciting cooperation in dilemma situatio , 1988 .

[86]  H. Tajfel,et al.  Social categorization and intergroup behaviour , 1971 .

[87]  Katelyn Y. A. McKenna,et al.  The internet and social life. , 2004, Annual review of psychology.

[88]  John J. Sosik,et al.  Computer-supported work group potency and effectiveness : The role of transformational leadership, anonymity, and task interdependence , 1998 .

[89]  Béatrice S. Hasler,et al.  Virtual research assistants: Replacing human interviewers by automated avatars in virtual worlds , 2013, Comput. Hum. Behav..

[90]  P. Palmieri,et al.  Reducing depression in stroke survivors and their informal caregivers: a randomized clinical trial of a Web-based intervention. , 2012, Rehabilitation psychology.

[91]  Nicolas Michinov,et al.  Social identity, group processes and performance in synchronous computer-mediated communication , 2004 .

[92]  Leonard Reinecke,et al.  Avatar Creation and Video Game Enjoyment , 2010, J. Media Psychol. Theor. Methods Appl..