The Assessment of Reference Values for Elements in Human Biological Tissues and Fluids: A Systematic Review

Abstract A survey is presented of the rationale of and the operative procedures for the assessment of reference values of minor and trace elements in human blood (whether entire, plasma, or serum), urine, milk, hair, kidneys, liver, and lungs. Literature sources available on this subject matter have been scanned over the past 30 years and reference values have been critically and selectively reported. The need for further harmonization of strategies and better comparability of experimental data is emphasized.

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