An examination of seven years of technology integration in Florida schools: Through the lens of the Levels of Digital Divide in Schools

Abstract The purpose of this longitudinal research is to document the Information and Communication Technology (ICT) integration patterns in the state of Florida in relation to the Socio-Economic Status (SES) and school type (Elementary, Middle, and High Schools). This research is characterized by the Levels of Digital Divide in Schools model presented by Hohlfeld, Ritzhaupt, Barron, and Kemker (2008). We use seven years of secondary data collected by the Florida Department of Education: Technology Resource Inventory (TRI), and the percentage of students on Free-and-Reduced Lunch as a proxy for SES. The current study uses descriptive statistics, internal consistency reliability, exploratory factor analysis, and longitudinal multi-level models to examine the trends in ICT integration in the state of Florida by SES (High and Low) in each school type (Elementary, Middle, and High) over the seven-year period. Our results suggest that Florida has improved on several indicators related to the digital divide; however, some important differences still exist. For instance, Low-SES students generally use software more for computer-directed activities such as drill and practice or remedial work, while their High-SES counterparts are using software more for student-controlled activities such as creating with or communicating through technology. We discuss our findings in relation to the three-level model presented by Hohlfeld et al. (2008) and make recommendations to relevant stakeholders within the community.

[1]  Eszter Hargittai,et al.  Second-Level Digital Divide: Mapping Differences in People's Online Skills , 2001, ArXiv.

[2]  Yong Zhao,et al.  Bridging the Gap: Technology Trends and Use of Technology in Schools , 2013, J. Educ. Technol. Soc..

[3]  A. Onwuegbuzie,et al.  A Framework for Reporting and Interpreting Internal Consistency Reliability Estimates , 2002 .

[4]  Harold Wenglinsky Using Technology Wisely: The Keys to Success in Schools , 2005 .

[5]  B. Hawkins,et al.  The Myth about the Digital Divide , 2006 .

[6]  Penny Thompson,et al.  The digital natives as learners: Technology use patterns and approaches to learning , 2013, Comput. Educ..

[7]  Caroline E. Parker,et al.  A Primer for Analyzing Nested Data: Multilevel Modeling in SPSS Using an Example from a REL Study. REL 2015-046. , 2014 .

[8]  L. Lewis Teachers’ Use of Educational Technology in U.S. Public Schools: 2009 , 2010 .

[9]  Jan van Dijk,et al.  The Digital Divide as a Complex and Dynamic Phenomenon , 2000, Inf. Soc..

[10]  Trends in Technology Planning and Funding in Florida K-12 Public Schools. , 2008 .

[11]  M. Warschauer,et al.  New Technology and Digital Worlds: Analyzing Evidence of Equity in Access, Use, and Outcomes , 2010 .

[12]  Phil Gibbs,et al.  Tips and Strategies for Mixed Modeling with SAS/STAT ® Procedures , 2012 .

[13]  Courtney K. Blackwell,et al.  Factors influencing digital technology use in early childhood education , 2014, Comput. Educ..

[14]  Julie M. Reinhart,et al.  K-12 Teachers: Technology Use and the Second Level Digital Divide , 2011 .

[15]  Mark Warschauer,et al.  Reconceptualizing the Digital Divide , 2002, First Monday.

[16]  Jennifer E. Dolan Splicing the Divide: A Review of Research on the Evolving Digital Divide Among K–12 Students , 2016 .

[17]  Jong-Kil Kim,et al.  Digital Divide: Conceptual Discussions and Prospect , 2001, Human.Society@Internet.

[18]  Liangzhi Yu,et al.  Understanding information inequality : Making sense of the literature of the information and digital , 2006 .

[19]  Anthony S. Bryk,et al.  Hierarchical Linear Models: Applications and Data Analysis Methods , 1992 .

[20]  Lawrence Wood,et al.  Dividing at an early age: the hidden digital divide in Ohio elementary schools , 2012 .

[21]  Harold H. Wenglinsky Does It Compute? The Relationship between Educational Technology and Student Achievement in Mathematics. , 1998 .

[22]  Tina N. Hohlfeld,et al.  Examining the digital divide in K-12 public schools: Four-year trends for supporting ICT literacy in Florida , 2008, Comput. Educ..

[23]  Meilan Zhang,et al.  Tracking the Rise of Web Information Needs for Mobile Education and an Emerging Trend of Digital Divide , 2015 .

[24]  M. Warschauer,et al.  Technology and Equity in Schooling: Deconstructing the Digital Divide , 2004 .

[25]  David J. Yates,et al.  Mobile Broadband Affordability and the Global Digital Divide -- An Information Ethics Perspective , 2015, 2015 48th Hawaii International Conference on System Sciences.

[26]  Timothy J. Robinson,et al.  Multilevel Analysis: Techniques and Applications , 2002 .

[27]  D. Campbell,et al.  Regression-Discontinuity Analysis: An Alternative to the Ex-Post Facto Experiment , 1960 .

[28]  Kristen Purcell and Alan Heaps and Judy Buchanan and Linda Friedrich How Teachers Are Using Technology at Home and in Their Classrooms , 2013 .

[29]  Albert D. Ritzhaupt,et al.  Differences in Student Information and Communication Technology Literacy Based on Socio-Economic Status, Ethnicity, and Gender , 2013 .

[30]  Paul C. Gorski Insisting on Digital Equity , 2009 .

[31]  S. Judge,et al.  Closing the Digital Divide: Update From the Early Childhood Longitudinal Study , 2006 .

[32]  E. Ruspini,et al.  An Introduction to Longitudinal Research , 2002 .

[33]  P. Alexander The Development of Expertise: The Journey From Acclimation to Proficiency , 2003 .

[34]  Gwen Shaffer,et al.  Digital Human Capital: Developing a Framework for Understanding the Economic Impact of Digital Exclusion in Low-Income Communities , 2013, Journal of Information Policy.

[35]  Tina N. Hohlfeld,et al.  Connecting schools, community, and family with ICT: Four-year trends related to school level and SES of public schools in Florida , 2010, Comput. Educ..

[36]  M. K. Eamon,et al.  Digital Divide in Computer Access and Use Between Poor and Non-Poor Youth , 2004, The Journal of Sociology & Social Welfare.

[37]  James R. Valadez,et al.  Redefining the Digital Divide: Beyond Access to Computers and the Internet , 2007 .

[38]  W. Sansing,et al.  The Impact of Technology Use on Low-Income and Minority Students' Academic Achievements: Educational Longitudinal Study of 2002 , 2004 .