Fundamentals of Laser‐Based Hydrogel Degradation and Applications in Cell and Tissue Engineering

The cell and tissue engineering fields have profited immensely through the implementation of highly structured biomaterials. The development and implementation of advanced biofabrication techniques have established new avenues for generating biomimetic scaffolds for a multitude of cell and tissue engineering applications. Among these, laser-based degradation of biomaterials is implemented to achieve user-directed features and functionalities within biomimetic scaffolds. This review offers an overview of the physical mechanisms that govern laser-material interactions and specifically, laser-hydrogel interactions. The influences of both laser and material properties on efficient, high-resolution hydrogel degradation are discussed and the current application space in cell and tissue engineering is reviewed. This review aims to acquaint readers with the capability and uses of laser-based degradation of biomaterials, so that it may be easily and widely adopted.

[1]  Kristi S Anseth,et al.  Controlled two-photon photodegradation of PEG hydrogels to study and manipulate subcellular interactions on soft materials. , 2010, Soft matter.

[2]  M. Dickinson,et al.  Biomimetic Surface Patterning Promotes Mesenchymal Stem Cell Differentiation. , 2016, ACS applied materials & interfaces.

[3]  U. Neumann,et al.  Laser-induced drug release for local tumor control--a proof of concept. , 2014, The Journal of surgical research.

[4]  Saulius Juodkazis,et al.  Silk patterns made by direct femtosecond laser writing. , 2016, Biomicrofluidics.

[5]  Chenyue W. Hu,et al.  Recapitulation and Modulation of the Cellular Architecture of a User-Chosen Cell of Interest Using Cell-Derived, Biomimetic Patterning. , 2015, ACS nano.

[6]  A. Vogel,et al.  Mechanisms of femtosecond laser nanosurgery of cells and tissues , 2005 .

[7]  M. Markey,et al.  Modulation of endothelial cell migration via manipulation of adhesion site growth using nanopatterned surfaces. , 2015, ACS applied materials & interfaces.

[8]  K. Barbee,et al.  An in vitro model of the tumor-lymphatic microenvironment with simultaneous transendothelial and luminal flows reveals mechanisms of flow enhanced invasion. , 2015, Integrative biology : quantitative biosciences from nano to macro.

[9]  A. Khademhosseini,et al.  BIOMIMETIC GRADIENT HYDROGELS FOR TISSUE ENGINEERING. , 2010, The Canadian journal of chemical engineering.

[10]  L. Lilge,et al.  Pulsetrain-burst mode, ultrafast-laser interactions with 3D viable cell cultures as a model for soft biological tissues. , 2013, Biomedical optics express.

[11]  Chaenyung Cha,et al.  25th Anniversary Article: Rational Design and Applications of Hydrogels in Regenerative Medicine , 2014, Advanced materials.

[12]  Michael Q. Zhang,et al.  Model-guided quantitative analysis of microRNA-mediated regulation on competing endogenous RNAs using a synthetic gene circuit , 2015, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences.

[13]  Kristi S. Anseth,et al.  Cytocompatible Click-based Hydrogels with Dynamically-Tunable Properties Through Orthogonal Photoconjugation and Photocleavage Reactions , 2011, Nature chemistry.

[14]  Melody A Swartz,et al.  Interstitial fluid and lymph formation and transport: physiological regulation and roles in inflammation and cancer. , 2012, Physiological reviews.

[15]  Sharon Gerecht,et al.  Hydrogels to model 3D in vitro microenvironment of tumor vascularization. , 2014, Advanced drug delivery reviews.

[16]  Shan Sun,et al.  3D femtosecond laser patterning of collagen for directed cell attachment. , 2005, Biomaterials.

[17]  R. Narayan,et al.  Laser direct writing of micro- and nano-scale medical devices , 2010, Expert review of medical devices.

[18]  U. Parlitz,et al.  Shock wave emission and cavitation bubble generation by picosecond and nanosecond optical breakdown in water , 1996 .

[19]  L. Shea,et al.  Hydrogel design for supporting neurite outgrowth and promoting gene delivery to maximize neurite extension , 2012, Biotechnology and bioengineering.

[20]  M. Teitell,et al.  Pulsed laser triggered high speed microfluidic fluorescence activated cell sorter , 2012, 2012 IEEE 25th International Conference on Micro Electro Mechanical Systems (MEMS).

[21]  Kazuyoshi Itoh,et al.  Femtosecond laser disruption of subcellular organelles in a living cell. , 2004, Optics express.

[22]  A. Welch,et al.  Shielding properties of laser-induced breakdown in water for pulse durations from 5 ns to 125 fs. , 1997, Applied Optics.

[23]  D. Kleinfeld,et al.  Targeted insult to subsurface cortical blood vessels using ultrashort laser pulses: three models of stroke , 2006, Nature Methods.

[24]  J. West,et al.  Fabrication of multifaceted, micropatterned surfaces and image-guided patterning using laser scanning lithography. , 2014, Methods in cell biology.

[25]  Maria Dinescu,et al.  Two-dimensional differential adherence of neuroblasts in laser micromachined CAD/CAM agarose channels , 2006 .

[26]  Mary E. Dickinson,et al.  Three‐Dimensional Biomimetic Patterning in Hydrogels to Guide Cellular Organization , 2012, Advanced materials.

[27]  Matthias P Lutolf,et al.  In Situ Patterning of Microfluidic Networks in 3D Cell‐Laden Hydrogels , 2016, Advanced materials.

[28]  E. Mazur,et al.  Minimally disruptive laser-induced breakdown in water. , 1997 .

[29]  Jan Feijen,et al.  Designed biodegradable hydrogel structures prepared by stereolithography using poly(ethylene glycol)/poly(D,L-lactide)-based resins. , 2010, Journal of controlled release : official journal of the Controlled Release Society.

[30]  E. Lipke,et al.  Polymeric Biomaterials for In Vitro Cancer Tissue Engineering and Drug Testing Applications , 2016 .

[31]  J. H. Slater,et al.  Biomimetic Surfaces for Cell Engineering , 2016 .

[32]  K. Marra,et al.  Excimer laser channel creation in polyethersulfone hollow fibers for compartmentalized in vitro neuronal cell culture scaffolds. , 2008, Acta biomaterialia.

[33]  Ying Zheng,et al.  Multicellular Vascularized Engineered Tissues through User‐Programmable Biomaterial Photodegradation , 2017, Advanced materials.

[34]  Andrés J. García,et al.  Bioadhesive hydrogel microenvironments to modulate epithelial morphogenesis. , 2008, Biomaterials.

[35]  Kristi S. Anseth,et al.  Mechanical Properties and Degradation of Chain and Step-Polymerized Photodegradable Hydrogels , 2013, Macromolecules.

[36]  D. Seliktar,et al.  In‐Situ Architectures Designed in 3D Cell‐Laden Hydrogels Using Microscopic Laser Photolithography , 2015, Advanced materials.

[37]  W. Frey,et al.  Nanopatterning of fibronectin and the influence of integrin clustering on endothelial cell spreading and proliferation. , 2008, Journal of biomedical materials research. Part A.

[38]  Carmelo De Maria,et al.  Development of a novel micro-ablation system to realise micrometric and well-defined hydrogel structures for tissue engineering applications , 2014 .

[39]  A. Vogel,et al.  Influence of pulse duration on mechanical effects after laser-induced breakdown in water , 1998 .

[40]  W. Webb,et al.  Nonlinear magic: multiphoton microscopy in the biosciences , 2003, Nature Biotechnology.

[41]  D. Seliktar,et al.  A three-dimensional spheroidal cancer model based on PEG-fibrinogen hydrogel microspheres. , 2017, Biomaterials.

[42]  S. Shoham,et al.  Three-dimensional guidance of DRG neurite outgrowth using multi-photon photo-ablation , 2009, 2009 4th International IEEE/EMBS Conference on Neural Engineering.

[43]  Jens Friedrichs,et al.  Multi-parametric hydrogels support 3D in vitro bioengineered microenvironment models of tumour angiogenesis. , 2015, Biomaterials.

[44]  D. Seliktar,et al.  Compositional alterations of fibrin-based materials for regulating in vitro neural outgrowth. , 2008, Tissue engineering. Part A.

[45]  Andrea M. Kasko,et al.  Photodegradable Hydrogels to Generate Positive and Negative Features over Multiple Length Scales , 2010 .

[46]  R. Chang,et al.  Laser-induced explosion of H2O droplets: spatially resolved spectra. , 1987, Optics letters.

[47]  C. Fotakis,et al.  Controlling cell adhesion via replication of laser micro/nano-textured surfaces on polymers , 2011, Biofabrication.

[48]  C. S. Ki,et al.  Facile preparation of photodegradable hydrogels by photopolymerization. , 2013, Polymer.

[49]  K. Anseth,et al.  Design and characterization of a synthetically accessible, photodegradable hydrogel for user-directed formation of neural networks. , 2014, Biomacromolecules.

[50]  Yasuhiko Jimbo,et al.  On‐chip neural cell cultivation using agarose‐microchamber array constructed by a photothermal etching method , 2004 .

[51]  Kristi S Anseth,et al.  Tunable Hydrogels for External Manipulation of Cellular Microenvironments through Controlled Photodegradation , 2010, Advanced materials.

[52]  Elena Fadeeva,et al.  Impact of laser-structured biomaterial interfaces on guided cell responses , 2014, Interface Focus.

[53]  A. Zhang,et al.  Laser Processing of Natural Biomaterials , 2013 .

[54]  Chih-Ming Ho,et al.  Directing three-dimensional multicellular morphogenesis by self-organization of vascular mesenchymal cells in hyaluronic acid hydrogels , 2017, Journal of biological engineering.

[55]  A. Vogel,et al.  Mechanisms of pulsed laser ablation of biological tissues. , 2003, Chemical reviews.

[56]  Huifang Zhou,et al.  Recent advances in bioprinting techniques: approaches, applications and future prospects , 2016, Journal of Translational Medicine.

[57]  K. Dörschel,et al.  Biophysics of the photoablation process , 1991, Lasers in Medical Science.

[58]  F. He,et al.  Fabrication of three-dimensional microfluidic channels inside glass using nanosecond laser direct writing. , 2012, Optics express.

[59]  E. Mazur,et al.  Micromachining bulk glass by use of femtosecond laser pulses with nanojoule energy. , 2001, Optics letters.

[60]  Ali Khademhosseini,et al.  Development of hydrogels for regenerative engineering , 2017, Biotechnology journal.

[61]  Joël S. Rossier,et al.  Topography, Crystallinity and Wettability of Photoablated PET Surfaces , 1999 .

[62]  R. Hill,et al.  Effects of bacterial communities on biofuel-producing microalgae: stimulation, inhibition and harvesting , 2016, Critical reviews in biotechnology.

[63]  K J Halbhuber,et al.  Intracellular nanosurgery with near infrared femtosecond laser pulses. , 1999, Cellular and molecular biology.

[64]  T. Furuno,et al.  Time-Course Statistical Evaluation of Intercellular Adhesion Maturation by Femtosecond Laser Impulse. , 2016, Biophysical journal.

[65]  Ting-Hsiang Wu,et al.  High-speed droplet generation on demand driven by pulse laser-induced cavitation. , 2011, Lab on a chip.

[66]  Jason A Burdick,et al.  Moving from static to dynamic complexity in hydrogel design , 2012, Nature Communications.

[67]  Roger D. Kamm,et al.  Microfluidic device for the formation of optically excitable, three-dimensional, compartmentalized motor units , 2016, Science Advances.

[68]  P. V. von Hippel,et al.  Calculation of protein extinction coefficients from amino acid sequence data. , 1989, Analytical biochemistry.

[69]  S. Koch,et al.  Shock wave emission during the collapse of cavitation bubbles , 2016 .

[70]  E. Mazur,et al.  Femtosecond laser micromachining in transparent materials , 2008 .

[71]  H. Davies,et al.  Engineered neural tissue for peripheral nerve repair. , 2013, Biomaterials.

[72]  R. J. Martín-Palma,et al.  Surface micro- and nano-texturing of stainless steel by femtosecond laser for the control of cell migration , 2016, Scientific Reports.

[73]  Kristi S. Anseth,et al.  Photodegradable Hydrogels for Dynamic Tuning of Physical and Chemical Properties , 2009, Science.

[74]  R. Kodzius,et al.  Fabrication of polystyrene microfluidic devices using a pulsed CO2 laser system , 2012 .

[75]  Junmin Zhu,et al.  Bioactive modification of poly(ethylene glycol) hydrogels for tissue engineering. , 2010, Biomaterials.

[76]  Joe Tien,et al.  Fabrication of microfluidic hydrogels using molded gelatin as a sacrificial element. , 2007, Lab on a chip.

[77]  Mark W. Tibbitt,et al.  Hydrogels as extracellular matrix mimics for 3D cell culture. , 2009, Biotechnology and bioengineering.

[78]  D. Mooney,et al.  Hydrogels for tissue engineering: scaffold design variables and applications. , 2003, Biomaterials.

[79]  R. Samanipour,et al.  A simple and high-resolution stereolithography-based 3D bioprinting system using visible light crosslinkable bioinks , 2015, Biofabrication.

[80]  Jiyun Kim,et al.  Recapitulating the Tumor Ecosystem Along the Metastatic Cascade Using 3D Culture Models , 2015, Front. Oncol..

[81]  N. Hampp,et al.  Two-photon absorption-controlled multidose drug release: a novel approach for secondary cataract treatment. , 2006, Journal of biomedical optics.

[82]  A. Haaparanta,et al.  Chemical and topographical patterning of hydrogels for neural cell guidance in vitro , 2013, Journal of tissue engineering and regenerative medicine.

[83]  Vasan Venugopalan,et al.  Laser-induced mixing in microfluidic channels. , 2007, Analytical chemistry.

[84]  Daniel J. Gould,et al.  Integration of Self‐Assembled Microvascular Networks with Microfabricated PEG‐Based Hydrogels , 2012, Advanced functional materials.

[85]  A. Vogel,et al.  Femtosecond-laser-induced nanocavitation in water: implications for optical breakdown threshold and cell surgery. , 2008, Physical review letters.

[86]  Satoshi Kawata,et al.  Three-dimensional subsurface microprocessing of collagen by ultrashort laser pulses , 2001 .

[87]  Tze Chiun Lim,et al.  Patterned prevascularised tissue constructs by assembly of polyelectrolyte hydrogel fibres , 2013, Nature Communications.

[88]  S. Shoham,et al.  A Hydrogel-Based Nerve Regeneration Conduit with Sub-Micrometer Feature Control , 2007, 2007 3rd International IEEE/EMBS Conference on Neural Engineering.

[89]  H. Moriguchi,et al.  An agar-based on-chip neural-cell-cultivation system for stepwise control of network pattern generation during cultivation , 2004 .

[90]  D. Mooney,et al.  Vasculogenic dynamics in 3D engineered tissue constructs , 2015, Scientific Reports.

[91]  Gabriel Popescu,et al.  High‐Resolution Projection Microstereolithography for Patterning of Neovasculature , 2016, Advanced healthcare materials.

[92]  D. Seliktar,et al.  Photo-patterning PEG-based hydrogels for neuronal engineering , 2015 .

[93]  R. Szoszkiewicz,et al.  FS laser processing of bio-polymer thin films for studying cell-to-substrate specific response , 2016 .

[94]  Ali Khademhosseini,et al.  Controlling the porosity and microarchitecture of hydrogels for tissue engineering. , 2010, Tissue engineering. Part B, Reviews.

[95]  Z. Werb,et al.  The extracellular matrix: A dynamic niche in cancer progression , 2012, The Journal of cell biology.

[96]  Olga Ilina,et al.  Two-photon laser-generated microtracks in 3D collagen lattices: principles of MMP-dependent and -independent collective cancer cell invasion , 2011 .

[97]  D. K. Cullen,et al.  Transplantable living scaffolds comprised of micro-tissue engineered aligned astrocyte networks to facilitate central nervous system regeneration. , 2016, Acta biomaterialia.

[98]  G. S. Wilson,et al.  Characterization of Protein Adsorption and Immunosorption Kinetics in Photoablated Polymer Microchannels , 2000 .

[99]  Guoyou Huang,et al.  Hydrogel-based methods for engineering cellular microenvironment with spatiotemporal gradients , 2015, Critical reviews in biotechnology.

[100]  K. Leong,et al.  Scaffold development using selective laser sintering of polyetheretherketone-hydroxyapatite biocomposite blends. , 2003, Biomaterials.

[101]  George M. Whitesides,et al.  Customization of Poly(dimethylsiloxane) Stamps by Micromachining Using a Femtosecond‐Pulsed Laser , 2003 .

[102]  John H Slater,et al.  Fabrication of 3D Biomimetic Microfluidic Networks in Hydrogels , 2016, Advanced healthcare materials.

[103]  Ali Khademhosseini,et al.  Directed assembly of cell-laden hydrogels for engineering functional tissues , 2010, Organogenesis.

[104]  Z. Gartner,et al.  Formation of spatially and geometrically controlled three-dimensional tissues in soft gels by sacrificial micromolding. , 2014, Tissue engineering. Part C, Methods.

[105]  Gerard Mourou,et al.  Optics at critical intensity: applications to nanomorphing. , 2004, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America.

[106]  Koji Sugioka,et al.  Rapid prototyping of three-dimensional microfluidic mixers in glass by femtosecond laser direct writing. , 2012, Lab on a chip.

[107]  Eric Mazur,et al.  Laser-induced breakdown and damage in bulk transparent materials induced by tightly focused femtosecond laser pulses , 2001 .

[108]  Koji Sugioka,et al.  3-D microstructuring inside photosensitive glass by femtosecond laser excitation , 2003 .

[109]  Bram van den Broek,et al.  Dextran based photodegradable hydrogels formed via a Michael addition , 2011 .

[110]  L Hao,et al.  Enhanced human osteoblast cell adhesion and proliferation on 316 LS stainless steel by means of CO2 laser surface treatment. , 2005, Journal of biomedical materials research. Part B, Applied biomaterials.

[111]  Jeffrey T. Borenstein,et al.  Biomaterials-based microfluidics for engineered tissue constructs , 2010 .

[112]  Kristi S Anseth,et al.  Synthesis of photodegradable hydrogels as dynamically tunable cell culture platforms , 2010, Nature Protocols.

[113]  Tammo Ripken,et al.  Lowered threshold energy for femtosecond laser induced optical breakdown in a water based eye model by aberration correction with adaptive optics , 2013, Biomedical optics express.

[114]  Robert F. Shepherd,et al.  Direct‐Write Assembly of 3D Hydrogel Scaffolds for Guided Cell Growth , 2009 .

[115]  Yin Tintut,et al.  Directing tissue morphogenesis via self-assembly of vascular mesenchymal cells. , 2012, Biomaterials.

[116]  J L West,et al.  Development and optimization of a dual-photoinitiator, emulsion-based technique for rapid generation of cell-laden hydrogel microspheres. , 2011, Acta biomaterialia.

[117]  Karsten König,et al.  Cell biology: Targeted transfection by femtosecond laser , 2002, Nature.

[118]  Thomas Hankemeier,et al.  Microfluidic 3D cell culture: from tools to tissue models. , 2015, Current opinion in biotechnology.

[119]  Aleksandr Ovsianikov,et al.  Engineering 3D cell-culture matrices: multiphoton processing technologies for biological and tissue engineering applications , 2012, Expert review of medical devices.

[120]  Nozomi Nishimura,et al.  Two-photon microscopy-guided femtosecond-laser photoablation of avian cardiogenesis: noninvasive creation of localized heart defects. , 2010, American journal of physiology. Heart and circulatory physiology.

[121]  Takayuki Uwada,et al.  Viability evaluation of culture cells patterned by femtosecond laser-induced impulsive force , 2008, SPIE BiOS.

[122]  Gaurav Jain,et al.  Cell migration on planar and three-dimensional matrices: a hydrogel-based perspective. , 2015, Tissue engineering. Part B, Reviews.

[123]  B R Masters,et al.  Two-photon excitation fluorescence microscopy. , 2000, Annual review of biomedical engineering.

[124]  Brendon M. Baker,et al.  Rapid casting of patterned vascular networks for perfusable engineered 3D tissues , 2012, Nature materials.

[125]  Claus-Dieter Ohl,et al.  Laser-induced cavitation based micropump. , 2008, Lab on a chip.

[126]  Anthony Atala,et al.  3D bioprinting of tissues and organs , 2014, Nature Biotechnology.

[127]  James G. Fujimoto,et al.  Time-resolved measurements of picosecond optical breakdown , 1989 .

[128]  J. Hubbell,et al.  Molecularly engineered PEG hydrogels: a novel model system for proteolytically mediated cell migration. , 2005, Biophysical journal.

[129]  Wei He,et al.  Wetting effects on in vitro bioactivity and in vitro biocompatibility of laser micro-textured Ca-P coating , 2010, Biofabrication.

[130]  D. Ingber,et al.  Microfluidic organs-on-chips , 2014, Nature Biotechnology.

[131]  David L. Kaplan,et al.  Laser-based three-dimensional multiscale micropatterning of biocompatible hydrogels for customized tissue engineering scaffolds , 2015, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences.

[132]  Hiroyuki Moriguchi,et al.  An agar-microchamber cell-cultivation system: flexible change of microchamber shapes during cultivation by photo-thermal etching. , 2002, Lab on a chip.

[133]  D. Mayerich,et al.  Image-guided, Laser-based Fabrication of Vascular-derived Microfluidic Networks , 2017, Journal of visualized experiments : JoVE.

[134]  E. Lipke,et al.  PEG-fibrinogen hydrogels for three-dimensional breast cancer cell culture. , 2017, Journal of biomedical materials research. Part A.

[135]  Xun Hou,et al.  Bioinspired wetting surface via laser microfabrication. , 2013, ACS applied materials & interfaces.

[136]  H. Maynard,et al.  Synthesis of photodegradable macromers for conjugation and release of bioactive molecules. , 2013, Biomacromolecules.

[137]  C. Fotakis,et al.  Tuning cell adhesion by controlling the roughness and wettability of 3D micro/nano silicon structures. , 2010, Acta biomaterialia.

[138]  C K Chua,et al.  Development of tissue scaffolds using selective laser sintering of polyvinyl alcohol/hydroxyapatite biocomposite for craniofacial and joint defects , 2004, Journal of materials science. Materials in medicine.

[139]  P. Zhong,et al.  Cell membrane deformation and bioeffects produced by tandem bubble-induced jetting flow , 2015, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences.

[140]  M. Shoichet,et al.  Anisotropic three-dimensional peptide channels guide neurite outgrowth within a biodegradable hydrogel matrix , 2006, Biomedical materials.

[141]  A simple model of multiphoton micromachining in silk hydrogels , 2016 .

[142]  A. Vogel,et al.  Single-shot spatially resolved characterization of laser-induced shock waves in water. , 1998, Applied optics.

[143]  Wei Zhu,et al.  Three-dimensional direct cell patterning in collagen hydrogels with near-infrared femtosecond laser , 2015, Scientific Reports.

[144]  G. Dubini,et al.  Human 3D vascularized organotypic microfluidic assays to study breast cancer cell extravasation , 2014, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences.

[145]  Denis Wirtz,et al.  Engineered Models of Confined Cell Migration. , 2016, Annual review of biomedical engineering.

[146]  K. Svoboda,et al.  Principles of Two-Photon Excitation Microscopy and Its Applications to Neuroscience , 2006, Neuron.

[147]  U. Parlitz,et al.  Energy balance of optical breakdown in water at nanosecond to femtosecond time scales , 1999 .

[148]  A. Kasko,et al.  Photo-selective delivery of model therapeutics from hydrogels. , 2012, ACS macro letters.

[149]  Jian Yu,et al.  Femtosecond laser ablation enhances cell infiltration into three-dimensional electrospun scaffolds. , 2012, Acta biomaterialia.

[150]  Ali Khademhosseini,et al.  3D biofabrication strategies for tissue engineering and regenerative medicine. , 2014, Annual review of biomedical engineering.

[151]  Qing Yang,et al.  Rapid fabrication of large-area concave microlens arrays on PDMS by a femtosecond laser. , 2013, ACS applied materials & interfaces.

[152]  Alicia C B Allen,et al.  Multilayer microfluidic PEGDA hydrogels. , 2010, Biomaterials.

[153]  Eric Mazur,et al.  Ablation of cytoskeletal filaments and mitochondria in live cells using a femtosecond laser nanoscissor. , 2005, Mechanics & chemistry of biosystems : MCB.

[154]  Boris N. Chichkov,et al.  Three dimensional microstructuring of biopolymers by femtosecond laser irradiation , 2009 .

[155]  Shy Shoham,et al.  Laser photoablation of guidance microchannels into hydrogels directs cell growth in three dimensions. , 2009, Biophysical journal.

[156]  Ali Khademhosseini,et al.  Vascularization and Angiogenesis in Tissue Engineering: Beyond Creating Static Networks. , 2016, Trends in biotechnology.

[157]  Hiroshi Masuhara,et al.  Femtosecond laser modification of living neuronal network , 2008 .

[158]  James G Truslow,et al.  Artificial lymphatic drainage systems for vascularized microfluidic scaffolds. , 2013, Journal of biomedical materials research. Part A.

[159]  Jason P. Gleghorn,et al.  Microfluidic scaffolds for tissue engineering. , 2007, Nature materials.

[160]  Kang Zhang,et al.  3D printing of functional biomaterials for tissue engineering. , 2016, Current opinion in biotechnology.

[161]  A. Kasko,et al.  Photodegradable macromers and hydrogels for live cell encapsulation and release. , 2012, Journal of the American Chemical Society.

[162]  G. Kastis,et al.  Time‐resolved observations of shock waves and cavitation bubbles generated by femtosecond laser pulses in corneal tissue and water , 1996, Lasers in surgery and medicine.