The Dutch secret: how to provide safe drinking water without chlorine in the Netherlands

The Netherlands is one of the few countries where chlorine is not used at all, neither for primary disinfection nor to maintain a residual disinfectant in the distribution network. The Dutch approach that allows production and distribution of drinking water without the use of chlorine while not compromising microbial safety at the tap, can be summarized as follows: 1. Use the best source available, in order of preference: microbiologically safe groundwater, surface water with soil passage such as artificial recharge or bank filtration, direct treatment of surface water in a multiple barrier treatment; 2. Use a preferred physical process treatment such as sedimentation, filtration and UV-disinfection. If absolutely necessary, also oxidation by means of ozone or peroxide can be used, but chlorine is avoided; 3. Prevent ingress of contamination during distribution; 4. Prevent microbial growth in the distribution system by production and distribution of biologically stable (biostable) water and the use of biostable materials; 5. Monitor for timely detection of any failure of the system to prevent significant health consequences. OA-fund TU Delft

[1]  Jan Vreeburg.  Discolouration in drinking water systems: a particular approach , 2007 .

[2]  Mgb,et al.  Onderzoek naar de bron van een epidemie van legionellose na de Westfriese Flora in Bovenkarspel , 2000 .

[3]  P. Hiemstra,et al.  Maintaining quality without a disinfectant residual , 1999 .

[4]  W.A.M. Hijnen,et al.  Elimination of Micro-organisms by Drinking Water Treatment Processes: A Review , 2010 .

[5]  G. Medema,et al.  Removal of bacteriophages MS2 and phiX174 during transport in a sandy anoxic aquifer. , 2008, Environmental Science and Technology.

[6]  D. van der Kooij,et al.  Biofilm formation and multiplication of Legionella in a model warm water system with pipes of copper, stainless steel and cross-linked polyethylene. , 2005, Water Research.

[8]  P.W.M.H. Smeets,et al.  Stochastic Modelling of Drinking Water Treatment in Quantitative Microbial Risk Assessment , 2010 .

[9]  S. Hassanizadeh,et al.  Bacteriophages and Clostridium spores as indicator organisms for removal of pathogens by passage through saturated dune sand. , 2003, Water research.

[10]  Johannes J. Rook,et al.  Haloforms in Drinking Water , 1976 .

[11]  P Nilsson,et al.  SCADA data and the quantification of hazardous events for QMRA. , 2007, Journal of water and health.

[12]  Peer C. Kamp,et al.  UF/RO treatment plant Heemskerk: from challenge to full scale application , 2000 .

[13]  P. van Gelder,et al.  Improved methods for modelling drinking water treatment in quantitative microbial risk assessment; a case study of Campylobacter reduction by filtration and ozonation. , 2008, Journal of water and health.

[14]  D. van der Kooij,et al.  Occurrence and genetic diversity of uncultured Legionella spp. in drinking water treated at temperatures below 15 degrees C. , 2006, Applied and environmental microbiology.

[15]  D. van der Kooij,et al.  Occurrence and Genetic Diversity of Uncultured Legionella spp. in Drinking Water Treated at Temperatures below 15°C , 2006, Applied and Environmental Microbiology.

[16]  Steve E. Hrudey,et al.  Book Review: Safe Drinking Water: Lessons from Recent Outbreaks in Affluent Nations 1 , 2005 .

[17]  N J Ashbolt,et al.  A theoretical approach to assess microbial risks due to failures in drinking water systems , 2003, International journal of environmental health research.

[18]  J. Hoek,et al.  IMPACT OF OZONATION ON DISINFECTION AND FORMATION OF BIODEGRADABLE ORGANICMATTER AND BROMATE , 1997 .

[19]  P. J. de Moel,et al.  Drinking Water: Principles and Practices , 2006 .

[20]  W. Hijnen,et al.  Inactivation credit of UV radiation for viruses, bacteria and protozoan (oo)cysts in water: a review. , 2006, Water research.

[21]  Gertjan Medema,et al.  Probability of detecting and quantifying faecal contaminations of drinking water by periodically sampling for E. coli: a simulation model study. , 2007, Water research.

[22]  Y. Sayato,et al.  WHO guidelines for drinking-water quality. , 1989 .

[23]  S. Hassanizadeh,et al.  Virus removal by soil passage at field scale and groundwater protection of sandy aquifers. , 2002, Water science and technology : a journal of the International Association on Water Pollution Research.

[24]  J. Schijven,et al.  Monitoring of Waterborne Pathogens in Surface Waters in Amsterdam, The Netherlands, and the Potential Health Risk Associated with Exposure to Cryptosporidium and Giardia in These Waters , 2008, Applied and Environmental Microbiology.

[25]  Dick van der Kooij,et al.  Risk assessment and risk management of faecal contamination in drinking water distributed withouta disinfectant residual , 2006 .

[26]  Gertjan Medema,et al.  Fault tree analysis of the causes of waterborne outbreaks. , 2007, Journal of water and health.

[27]  B. Hambsch,et al.  Incidence of faecal contaminations in chlorinated and non-chlorinated distribution systems of neighbouring European countries. , 2007, Journal of water and health.

[28]  Kiwa,et al.  Enterovirusconcentraties bij innamepunten van oppervlaktewater voor de bereiding van drinkwater , 1998 .

[29]  P J Nobel,et al.  Quantitative risk assessment of Cryptosporidium in surface water treatment. , 2003, Water science and technology : a journal of the International Association on Water Pollution Research.

[30]  J. Schijven,et al.  Reduction of FRNA-bacteriophages and faecal indicator bacteria by dune infiltration and estimation of sticking efficiencies , 1998 .

[31]  Steven G. Buchberger,et al.  Importance of demand modelling in network water quality models: a review , 2008 .

[32]  Gertjan Medema,et al.  Quantitative microbial risk assessment of distributed drinking water using faecal indicator incidence and concentrations. , 2007, Journal of water and health.

[33]  Peer C. Kamp,et al.  UV/H2O2 Treatment: A Practical Solution for Organic Contaminant Control and Primary Disinfection , 2007 .