The role of trust in human-robot interaction

As robots become increasingly common in a wide variety of domains—from military and scientific applications to entertainment and home use—there is an increasing need to define and assess the trust humans have when interacting with robots. In human interaction with robots and automation, previous work has discovered that humans often have a tendency to either overuse automation, especially in cases of high workload, or underuse automation, both of which can make negative outcomes more likely. Frthermore, this is not limited to naive users, but experienced ones as well. Robotics brings a new dimension to previous work in trust in automation, as they are envisioned by many to work as teammates with their operators in increasingly complex tasks. In this chapter, our goal is to highlight previous work in trust in automation and human-robot interaction and draw conclusions and recommendations based on the existing literature. We believe that, while significant progress has been made in recent years, especially in quantifying and modeling trust, there are still several places where more investigation is needed.

[1]  K. Mosier,et al.  Human Decision Makers and Automated Decision Aids: Made for Each Other? , 1996 .

[2]  Raja Parasuraman,et al.  Humans and Automation: Use, Misuse, Disuse, Abuse , 1997, Hum. Factors.

[3]  Katia P. Sycara,et al.  Stereotypical trust and bias in dynamic multiagent systems , 2013, TIST.

[4]  Pei-Luen Patrick Rau,et al.  When in Rome: The role of culture & context in adherence to robot recommendations , 2010, 2010 5th ACM/IEEE International Conference on Human-Robot Interaction (HRI).

[5]  Kazuya Takeda.  Modeling and Detecting Excessive Trust from Behavior Signals: Overview of Research Project and Results , 2016, Human-Harmonized Information Technology.

[6]  Michael Lewis,et al.  Cross-Country Validation of a Cultural Scale in Measuring Trust in Automation , 2015 .

[7]  Michael Lewis,et al.  Designing for Human-Agent Interaction , 1998, AI Mag..

[8]  Gregory Dudek,et al.  Maintaining efficient collaboration with trust-seeking robots , 2016, 2016 IEEE/RSJ International Conference on Intelligent Robots and Systems (IROS).

[9]  Joachim Meyer,et al.  Effects of Warning Validity and Proximity on Responses to Warnings , 2001, Hum. Factors.

[10]  Brian Scassellati,et al.  Effects of form and motion on judgments of social robots' animacy, likability, trustworthiness and unpleasantness , 2016, Int. J. Hum. Comput. Stud..

[11]  E. Higgins,et al.  To "do the right thing" or to "just do it": locomotion and assessment as distinct self-regulatory imperatives. , 2000, Journal of personality and social psychology.

[12]  D. H. Mills.  The Logic and Limits of Trust , 1983 .

[13]  J. Rotter.  A new scale for the measurement of interpersonal trust. , 1967, Journal of personality.

[14]  Brian Scassellati,et al.  The effect of presence on human-robot interaction , 2008, RO-MAN 2008 - The 17th IEEE International Symposium on Robot and Human Interactive Communication.

[15]  Raja Parasuraman,et al.  Effects of Situation-Specific Reliability on Trust and Usage of Automated Air Traffic Control Decision Aids , 2003 .

[16]  Wendy Ju,et al.  Tell me more designing HRI to encourage more trust, disclosure, and companionship , 2016, 2016 11th ACM/IEEE International Conference on Human-Robot Interaction (HRI).

[17]  Philip J. Smith,et al.  Design of a Cooperative Problem-Solving System for En-Route Flight Planning: An Empirical Evaluation , 1994 .

[18]  Rosemarie E. Yagoda,et al.  You Want Me to Trust a ROBOT? The Development of a Human–Robot Interaction Trust Scale , 2012, International Journal of Social Robotics.

[19]  J. G. Holmes,et al.  Trust in close relationships. , 1985 .

[20]  Richard P. Will,et al.  True and false dependence on technology: Evaluation with an expert system , 1991 .

[21]  Katia P. Sycara,et al.  Calibrating trust to integrate intelligent agents into human teams , 1998, Proceedings of the Thirty-First Hawaii International Conference on System Sciences.

[22]  Sara B. Kiesler,et al.  Mental models of robotic assistants , 2002, CHI Extended Abstracts.

[23]  J. Cassidy.  Child-mother attachment and the self in six-year-olds. , 1988, Child development.

[24]  Laurence W. Grimes,et al.  Measurement of trust over time in hybrid inspection systems , 2005 .

[25]  K. Sycara,et al.  Models for Intercultural Collaboration and Negotiation , 2013, Advances in Group Decision and Negotiation.

[26]  Toshiyuki Inagaki,et al.  Laboratory studies of trust between humans and machines in automated systems , 1999 .

[27]  Gregory Dudek,et al.  OPTIMo: Online Probabilistic Trust Inference Model for Asymmetric Human-Robot Collaborations , 2015, 2015 10th ACM/IEEE International Conference on Human-Robot Interaction (HRI).

[28]  C. Nass,et al.  Does computer-synthesized speech manifest personality? Experimental tests of recognition, similarity-attraction, and consistency-attraction. , 2001, Journal of experimental psychology. Applied.

[29]  Jessie Y. C. Chen,et al.  A Meta-Analysis of Factors Affecting Trust in Human-Robot Interaction , 2011, Hum. Factors.

[30]  Alan R. Wagner,et al.  Timing Is Key for Robot Trust Repair , 2015, ICSR.

[31]  L J Skitka,et al.  Automation bias: decision making and performance in high-tech cockpits. , 1997, The International journal of aviation psychology.

[32]  F. Heider,et al.  An experimental study of apparent behavior , 1944 .

[33]  Jessie Y. C. Chen,et al.  Supervisory Control of Multiple Robots: Human-Performance Issues and User-Interface Design , 2011, IEEE Transactions on Systems, Man, and Cybernetics, Part C (Applications and Reviews).

[34]  Roderick M. Kramer,et al.  The Psychology of Intergroup Attitudes and Behavior , 1985 .

[35]  Jessie Y.C. Chen,et al.  Effects of imperfect automation and individual differences on concurrent performance of military and robotics tasks in a simulated multitasking environment , 2009, Ergonomics.

[36]  Douglas B. Fridsma,et al.  Research Paper: Effectiveness of Clinician-selected Electronic Information Resources for Answering Primary Care Physicians' Information Needs , 2006, J. Am. Medical Informatics Assoc..

[37]  Nir Oren,et al.  Supporting Trust Assessment and Decision Making in Coalitions , 2014, IEEE Intelligent Systems.

[38]  Wendy Ju.  Approachability : How People Interpret Automatic Door Movement as Gesture , 2008 .

[39]  Paul R. Havig,et al.  Transparency in a Human-Machine Context: Approaches for Fostering Shared Awareness/Intent , 2014, HCI.

[40]  Brian Scassellati,et al.  Secret-sharing: Interactions between a child, robot, and adult , 2011, 2011 IEEE International Conference on Systems, Man, and Cybernetics.

[41]  E. G. Lyman,et al.  NASA aviation safety reporting system , 1976 .

[42]  Katia P. Sycara,et al.  Trust Decision-Making in Multi-Agent Systems , 2011, IJCAI.

[43]  Abdul V. Roudsari,et al.  Automation bias: a systematic review of frequency, effect mediators, and mitigators , 2012, J. Am. Medical Informatics Assoc..

[44]  Christopher D. Wickens,et al.  Automation Reliability in Unmanned Aerial Vehicle Control: A Reliance-Compliance Model of Automation Dependence in High Workload , 2006, Hum. Factors.

[45]  Randall D. Spain,et al.  Towards an Empirically Developed Scale for System Trust: Take Two , 2008 .

[46]  J. Lewis,et al.  Trust as a Social Reality , 1985 .

[47]  James L. Szalma,et al.  A Meta-Analysis of Factors Influencing the Development of Trust in Automation , 2016, Hum. Factors.

[48]  Terri L. Lenox,et al.  Support of teamwork in human-agent teams , 1998, SMC'98 Conference Proceedings. 1998 IEEE International Conference on Systems, Man, and Cybernetics (Cat. No.98CH36218).

[49]  Holly A. Yanco,et al.  Robot confidence and trust alignment , 2013, 2013 8th ACM/IEEE International Conference on Human-Robot Interaction (HRI).

[50]  Kerstin Dautenhahn,et al.  Would You Trust a (Faulty) Robot? Effects of Error, Task Type and Personality on Human-Robot Cooperation and Trust , 2015, 2015 10th ACM/IEEE International Conference on Human-Robot Interaction (HRI).

[51]  Joseph B. Lyons,et al.  Human–Human Reliance in the Context of Automation , 2012, Hum. Factors.

[52]  J. H. Davis,et al.  An Integrative Model Of Organizational Trust , 1995 .

[53]  Bonnie M. Muir,et al.  Trust in automation. I: Theoretical issues in the study of trust and human intervention in automated systems , 1994 .

[54]  Ewart de Visser,et al.  Measurement of trust in human-robot collaboration , 2007, 2007 International Symposium on Collaborative Technologies and Systems.

[55]  John D. Lee,et al.  Trust, self-confidence, and operators' adaptation to automation , 1994, Int. J. Hum. Comput. Stud..

[56]  John D. Lee,et al.  Trust in Automation: Designing for Appropriate Reliance , 2004 .

[57]  Brian Scassellati,et al.  Socially assistive robotics [Grand Challenges of Robotics] , 2007, IEEE Robotics & Automation Magazine.

[58]  C. Bartneck,et al.  Perception of affect elicited by robot motion , 2010, HRI 2010.

[59]  Holly A. Yanco,et al.  Impact of robot failures and feedback on real-time trust , 2013, 2013 8th ACM/IEEE International Conference on Human-Robot Interaction (HRI).

[60]  P. Goillau,et al.  Guidelines for Trust in Future ATM Systems: Measures , 2003 .

[61]  Colin Camerer,et al.  Not So Different After All: A Cross-Discipline View Of Trust , 1998 .

[62]  Alan R. Wagner,et al.  Overtrust of robots in emergency evacuation scenarios , 2016, 2016 11th ACM/IEEE International Conference on Human-Robot Interaction (HRI).

[63]  J. Brockner,et al.  The Influence of Prior Commitment to an Institution on Reactions to Perceived Unfairness: The Higher They Are, the Harder They Fall , 1992 .

[64]  Sidney W. A. Dekker,et al.  MABA-MABA or Abracadabra? Progress on Human–Automation Co-ordination , 2002, Cognition, Technology & Work.

[65]  Michael J. Prietula,et al.  The Turing effect: the nature of trust in expert systems advice , 1997 .

[66]  David P. Biros,et al.  The Influence of Task Load and Automation Trust on Deception Detection , 2004 .

[67]  Iris Bohnet,et al.  Trust and the Reference Point for Trustworthiness in Gulf and Western Countries , 2009 .

[68]  Linda G. Pierce,et al.  The Perceived Utility of Human and Automated Aids in a Visual Detection Task , 2002, Hum. Factors.

[69]  Nadine B. Sarter,et al.  Supporting Decision Making and Action Selection under Time Pressure and Uncertainty: The Case of In-Flight Icing , 2001, Hum. Factors.

[70]  Florian Jentsch,et al.  Building Appropriate Trust in Human-Robot Teams , 2013, AAAI Spring Symposium: Trust and Autonomous Systems.

[71]  Joseph B. Lyons.  Being Transparent about Transparency , 2013 .

[72]  Matthew G. Chin,et al.  Anthropomorphism of Robotic Forms: A Response to Affordances? , 2005 .

[73]  Katia P. Sycara,et al.  Towards the Development of an Inter-cultural Scale to Measure Trust in Automation , 2014, HCI.

[74]  N. Moray,et al.  Adaptive automation, trust, and self-confidence in fault management of time-critical tasks. , 2000, Journal of experimental psychology. Applied.

[75]  Joachim Meyer,et al.  Conceptual Issues in the Study of Dynamic Hazard Warnings , 2004, Hum. Factors.

[76]  N Moray,et al.  Trust, control strategies and allocation of function in human-machine systems. , 1992, Ergonomics.

[77]  Colin G. Drury,et al.  Foundations for an Empirically Determined Scale of Trust in Automated Systems , 2000 .

[78]  Nadine B. Sarter,et al.  Supporting Trust Calibration and the Effective Use of Decision Aids by Presenting Dynamic System Confidence Information , 2006, Hum. Factors.

[79]  Thomas B. Sheridan,et al.  Human and Computer Control of Undersea Teleoperators , 1978 .

[80]  Katia P. Sycara,et al.  Influence of cultural factors in dynamic trust in automation , 2016, 2016 IEEE International Conference on Systems, Man, and Cybernetics (SMC).

[81]  P. Carnevale,et al.  Motivational Bases Of Information Processing and Strategy in Conflict and Negotiation , 2003 .

[82]  C. Wickens,et al.  Situation Awareness, Mental Workload, and Trust in Automation: Viable, Empirically Supported Cognitive Engineering Constructs , 2008 .

[83]  K. Weick.  ENACTED SENSEMAKING IN CRISIS SITUATIONS[1] , 1988 .

[84]  Paul M. Satchell,et al.  Cockpit Monitoring and Alerting Systems , 1993 .

[85]  Erik Hollnagel,et al.  Human factors and folk models , 2004, Cognition, Technology & Work.

[86]  V. Groom,et al.  Can robots be teammates?: Benchmarks in human–robot teams , 2007 .

[87]  J. Rotter.  Generalized expectancies for interpersonal trust. , 1971 .

[88]  Raja Parasuraman,et al.  Complacency and Bias in Human Use of Automation: An Attentional Integration , 2010, Hum. Factors.

[89]  Gareth R. Jones,et al.  The experience and evolution of trust: Implications for cooperation and teamwork , 1998 .

[90]  K. Dirks,et al.  The Repair of Trust: A Dynamic Bilateral Perspective and Multilevel Conceptualization , 2009 .

[91]  Sara B. Kiesler,et al.  Human Mental Models of Humanoid Robots , 2005, Proceedings of the 2005 IEEE International Conference on Robotics and Automation.

[92]  N. Moray,et al.  Adaptive automation, trust, and self-confidence in fault management of time-critical tasks. , 2000 .

[93]  D. Cohen,et al.  Within- and between-culture variation: individual differences and the cultural logics of honor, face, and dignity cultures. , 2011, Journal of personality and social psychology.

[94]  C. Nass,et al.  Does computer-synthesized speech manifest personality? Experimental tests of recognition, similarity-attraction, and consistency-attraction. , 2001 .

[95]  Kristin E. Schaefer,et al.  The Perception And Measurement Of Human-robot Trust , 2013 .

[96]  Ji Gao,et al.  Extending the decision field theory to model operators' reliance on automation in supervisory control situations , 2006, IEEE Transactions on Systems, Man, and Cybernetics - Part A: Systems and Humans.

[97]  Andrew S. Clare,et al.  Modeling the Impact of Operator Trust on Performance in Multiple Robot Control , 2013, AAAI Spring Symposium: Trust and Autonomous Systems.

[98]  N. Moray,et al.  Trust in automation. Part II. Experimental studies of trust and human intervention in a process control simulation. , 1996, Ergonomics.

[99]  Stefan Kopp,et al.  To Err is Human(-like): Effects of Robot Gesture on Perceived Anthropomorphism and Likability , 2013, International Journal of Social Robotics.

[100]  Daniel R. Ilgen,et al.  Not All Trust Is Created Equal: Dispositional and History-Based Trust in Human-Automation Interactions , 2008, Hum. Factors.

[101]  David W. Aha,et al.  Learning Trustworthy Behaviors Using an Inverse Trust Metric , 2016 .

[102]  James C. Lester,et al.  The persona effect: affective impact of animated pedagogical agents , 1997, CHI.

[103]  Kathleen L. Mosier,et al.  Electronic Checklists: Implications for Decision Making , 1992 .

[104]  S Lewandowsky,et al.  The dynamics of trust: comparing humans to automation. , 2000, Journal of experimental psychology. Applied.

[105]  Katia P. Sycara,et al.  Bootstrapping trust evaluations through stereotypes , 2010, AAMAS.

[106]  Jessie Y. C. Chen,et al.  Effects of Agent Transparency on Operator Trust , 2015, HRI.

[107]  John R. Wagner,et al.  Trust-based mixed-initiative teleoperation of mobile robots , 2016, 2016 American Control Conference (ACC).

[108]  P. Dorfman,et al.  Leadership and Organizations: The GLOBE Study of 62 Societies , 2004 .

[109]  Holly A. Yanco,et al.  Modeling trust to improve human-robot interaction , 2012 .

[110]  J. H. Davis,et al.  An integrative model of organizational trust, Academy of Management Review, : . , 1995 .

[111]  Ning Wang,et al.  Trust calibration within a human-robot team: Comparing automatically generated explanations , 2016, 2016 11th ACM/IEEE International Conference on Human-Robot Interaction (HRI).

[112]  Mary L. Cummings,et al.  Influencing Trust for Human–Automation Collaborative Scheduling of Multiple Unmanned Vehicles , 2015, Hum. Factors.

[113]  G. Hofstede,et al.  Cultures and Organizations: Software of the Mind , 1991 .

[114]  Roderick M. Kramer,et al.  Swift trust and temporary groups. , 1996 .

[115]  J. Llinas,et al.  Studies and Analyses of Aided Adversarial Decision Making. Phase 2: Research on Human Trust in Automation , 1998 .

[116]  P. Goillau,et al.  Guidelines for Trust in Future ATM Systems: A Literature Review , 2003 .

[117]  Min Song,et al.  Analyzing the Political Landscape of 2012 Korean Presidential Election in Twitter , 2014, IEEE Intelligent Systems.

[118]  David W. Aha,et al.  Adapting Autonomous Behavior Using an Inverse Trust Estimation , 2014, ICCSA.

[119]  Ashleigh Merritt,et al.  Culture in the Cockpit , 2000, Journal of cross-cultural psychology.

[120]  S. Gregor,et al.  Measuring Human-Computer Trust , 2000 .

[121]  Lorenzo Strigini,et al.  Effects of incorrect computer-aided detection (CAD) output on human decision-making in mammography. , 2004, Academic radiology.

[122]  Raja Parasuraman,et al.  Adaptive Aiding of Human-Robot Teaming , 2011 .

[123]  Kristiina Karvonen,et al.  Designing trust for a universal audience: a multicultural study on the formation of trust in the Internet in the Nordic Countries , 2001, HCI.

[124]  I. Singh,et al.  Individual differences in monitoring failures of automation , 1993 .

[125]  Pei-Luen Patrick Rau,et al.  Effects of communication style and culture on ability to accept recommendations from robots , 2009, Comput. Hum. Behav..