Current research on Sarcocystis species of domestic animals.

The genus Sarcocystis is composed of about 130 species of heteroxenous cyst-forming coccidia with differences in life cycle and pathogenicity. Pathogenic Sarcocystis spp. can cause disease in their intermediate hosts, in particular in ruminants. Research on Sarcocystis infections has been impeded by several facets of the parasites. Intermediate as well as definitive hosts can be parasitized by several different species with similarities in biology and morphology. Antigen preparations derived from pathogenic Sarcocystis spp. are highly cross-reactive with antibodies directed against non-pathogenic species. As a consequence, none of the currently available immunological tests is species-specific and can differentiate between pathogenic and non-pathogenic Sarcocystis spp. Over the last decade, new techniques in immunology, protein chemistry and molecular biology have facilitated more advanced studies on the molecular composition and molecular biology of Sarcocystis spp. in various laboratories. The development of species-specific monoclonal antibodies and analyses of the molecular composition of some life-cycle stages of Sarcocystis spp. of cattle and sheep showed that species-specific proteins and antigens exist in these species, although they are not highly abundant. In addition, comparisons of rRNA genes of different Sarcocystis spp. identified unique sequences in the rRNA of pathogenic Sarcocystis spp. that are suitable targets for species-specific identification. Thus, tools have become available that facilitate the development of methods for species-specific identification and differentiation of Sarcocystis spp. as well as the identification and study of molecules that are associated with pathogenicity of some of these parasites.

[1]  M. Mitchell.  The prevalence of macroscopic sarcocysts in New Zealand cattle at slaughter. , 1988, New Zealand veterinary journal.

[2]  H. Mehlhorn,et al.  Light and electron microscopic studies of Sarcocystis suihominis. 1. The development of cysts in experimentally infected pigs. , 1977, Zentralblatt fur Bakteriologie, Parasitenkunde, Infektionskrankheiten und Hygiene. Erste Abteilung Originale. Reihe A: Medizinische Mikrobiologie und Parasitologie.

[3]  M. Sogin,et al.  Ribosomal RNA sequences of Sarcocystis muris, Theileria annulata and Crypthecodinium cohnii reveal evolutionary relationships among apicomplexans, dinoflagellates, and ciliates. , 1991, Molecular and biochemical parasitology.

[4]  F. G. Wallace,et al.  A newly revised classification of the protozoa. , 1980, The Journal of protozoology.

[5]  W. Pomroy,et al.  The prevalence and identity of Sarcocystis in beef cattle in New Zealand. , 1987, Veterinary parasitology.

[6]  M. Adams,et al.  Morphological and biochemical correlates in the characterization of Sarcocystis spp. , 1986, The Journal of protozoology.

[7]  A. Saleque,et al.  Prevalence of Sarcocystis in domestic pigs in India. , 1991, Veterinary parasitology.

[8]  I. Robertson,et al.  Evaluation of a serological test system for the diagnosis of Sarcocystis cruzi infection in cattle using S. cruzi merozoite antigen. , 1994, Veterinary parasitology.

[9]  J. Cazenave,et al.  [Direct detection of toxoplasma in the aqueous humor by gene amplification]. , 1991, Journal francais d'ophtalmologie.

[10]  R. Melville.  Reply to Frenkel, Mehlhorn, and Heydorn on Protozoan Nomina dubia , 1984 .

[11]  J. B. Farmer,et al.  Introduction and Protozoa , 1964 .

[12]  J. Laarman,et al.  Sarcocystis and related coccidian parasites: a brief general review, together with a discussion on some biological aspects of their life cycles and a new proposal for their classification. , 1976, Acta Leidensia.

[13]  A. Johnson,et al.  Species-specific identification of Sarcocystis and Toxoplasma by PCR amplification of small subunit ribosomal RNA gene fragments. , 1994, Applied parasitology.

[14]  F. Forestier,et al.  Contribution of a New PCR assay to the prenatal diagnosis of congenital toxoplasmosis , 1992, Prenatal diagnosis.

[15]  J. Dubey,et al.  Sarcocystis fayeri sp. n. from the horse. , 1977, Journal of Parasitology.

[16]  J. K. Frenkel,et al.  Protozoan nomina dubia: to arbitrarily restrict or replace. The case of Sarcocystis spp. , 1984, Journal of Parasitology.

[17]  J. Vavra,et al.  Spontaneous and experimental infection of domestic rabbits by Sarcocystis cuniculi Brumpt, 1913. , 1981, Folia parasitologica.

[18]  I. Robertson,et al.  Sarcocystis spp in Western Australian cattle. , 1992, Australian veterinary journal.

[19]  M. Collins,et al.  PCR cloning and nucleotide sequence determination of the 18S rRNA genes and internal transcribed spacer 1 of the protozoan parasites Cryptosporidium parvum and Cryptosporidium muris. , 1992, Biochimica et biophysica acta.

[20]  A. Johnson,et al.  Comparison of in vitro translation products of Sarcocystis gigantea and Sarcocystis tenella. , 1992, International journal for parasitology.

[21]  R. L. Sharma,et al.  Parasitic infections of Indian yak Bos (poephagus) grunniens--an overview. , 1994, Veterinary parasitology.

[22]  M. Rommel.  Recent advances in the knowledge of the biology of the cyst-forming coccidia. , 1989, Angewandte Parasitologie.

[23]  A. Waters,et al.  Ribosomal RNA: nature's own polymerase-amplified target for diagnosis. , 1990, Parasitology today.

[24]  S. P. Parker.  Synopsis and classification of living organisms , 1982 .

[25]  R. Fayer,et al.  Experimental Sarcocystis hominis infection in cattle: lesions and ultrastructure of sarcocysts. , 1988, The Journal of parasitology.

[26]  F. Mason.  Sarcocysts in the camel in Egypt , 1910 .

[27]  E. Lankester.  A Treatise on Zoology , 1901, Nature.

[28]  J. Boch,et al.  [Sarcosporidia infections in domestic fowl, pheasant and coot]. , 1982, Berliner und Munchener tierarztliche Wochenschrift.

[29]  C. Wenyon.  Protozoology a Manual for Medical Men, Veterinarians and Zoologists , 1927 .

[30]  R. Ashford.  The fox, Vulpes vulpes, as a final host for Sarcocystis of sheep. , 1977, Annals of tropical medicine and parasitology.

[31]  M. Erber.  [Detection and differentiation of Sarcocystis species in pigs]. , 1977, Berliner und Munchener tierarztliche Wochenschrift.

[32]  B. Gjerde.  The Fox As Definitive Host for Sarcocystis Sp. Gjerde, 1984 From Skeletal Muscle of Reindeer (Rangifer Tarandus) , 1984, Acta Veterinaria Scandinavica.

[33]  N. Mencke,et al.  Characterization of monoclonal antibodies against ovine Sarcocystis spp. antigens by immunoblotting and immuno-electron microscopy. , 1990, Veterinary immunology and immunopathology.

[34]  P. O'Donoghue,et al.  Australian-German collaborative studies on the immunology of Sarcocystis infections. , 1992, Angewandte Parasitologie.

[35]  F. Schulze,et al.  Das Tierreich : eine Zusammenstellung und Kennzeichnung der rezenten Tierformen , 1931, Nature.

[36]  A. Heydorn,et al.  [Development of Sarcocystis hircicanis n.sp]. , 1983, Berliner und Munchener tierarztliche Wochenschrift.

[37]  N. D. Levine.  The taxonomy of Sarcocystis (Protozoa, Apicomplexa) species. , 1986, The Journal of parasitology.

[38]  B. Gjerde.  Sarcocystis Hardangeri and Sarcocystis Rangi N. Sp. From The Domestic Reindeer (Rangifer Tarandus) in Northern Norway , 1984, Acta Veterinaria Scandinavica.

[39]  N. D. Levine,et al.  The Isospora — Toxoplasma — Sarcocystis confusion , 1987 .

[40]  M. Yukawa,et al.  Studies on the Morphology of Sarcocysts in Thoroughbred Horses in Japan , 1993 .

[41]  M. Neveu-Lemaire.  Parasitologie des animaux domestiques : maladies parasitaires non bactériennes , 1912 .

[42]  B. Munday,et al.  Experimental infection with Sarcocystis medusiformis in sheep. , 1987, Veterinary parasitology.

[43]  J. Dubey,et al.  [Abortions caused by protozoa in agricultural animals]. , 1992, DTW. Deutsche tierarztliche Wochenschrift.

[44]  J. Vercruysse,et al.  The prevalence and identity of Sarcocystis cysts in cattle in Belgium. , 1989, Zentralblatt fur Veterinarmedizin. Reihe B. Journal of veterinary medicine. Series B.

[45]  A. Johnson,et al.  Phylogenetic relationships of Cryptosporidium determined by ribosomal RNA sequence comparison. , 1990, International journal for parasitology.

[46]  J. Dubey,et al.  Sarcocystis neurona-associated ataxia in horses in Brazil. , 1992, Veterinary parasitology.

[47]  J. Felsenstein.  Phylogenies from molecular sequences: inference and reliability. , 1988, Annual review of genetics.

[48]  M. Jeffrey.  Sarcocystosis of sheep , 1993, In Practice.

[49]  H. Ao.  [Life-cycle of Sarcosporidia. IX. Developmental cyclus of Sarcocystis suihominis n. spec]. , 1977 .

[50]  J. Barta,et al.  Phylogenetic analysis of the class Sporozoea (phylum Apicomplexa Levine, 1970): evidence for the independent evolution of heteroxenous life cycles. , 1989, The Journal of parasitology.

[51]  C. Speer,et al.  Identification of antigens of Sarcocystis cruzi sporozoites, merozoites, and bradyzoites with monoclonal antibodies. , 1988, The Journal of parasitology.

[52]  T. Elsasser,et al.  Bovine sarcocystosis: How parasites negatively affect growth. , 1991, Parasitology today.

[53]  G. Leguia.  The epidemiology and economic impact of llama parasites. , 1991, Parasitology today.

[54]  U. Stucki,et al.  Eimeria tenella: characterization of a 5S ribosomal RNA repeat unit and its use as a species-specific probe. , 1993, Experimental parasitology.

[55]  A. Tremblay,et al.  Physical and genetic mapping of cloned ribosomal DNA from Toxoplasma gondii: primary and secondary structure of the 5S gene. , 1992, Gene.

[56]  B. Munday,et al.  Development and growth of Sarcocystis gigantea in experimentally-infected sheep. , 1984, Veterinary parasitology.

[57]  H. Ao.  The development of Sarcocystis arieticanis n. sp , 1985 .

[58]  B. Gjerde.  A Light Microscopic Comparison of The Cysts of Four Species of Sarcocystis Infecting The Domestic Reindeer (Rangifer Tarandus) in Northern Norway , 1984, Acta Veterinaria Scandinavica.

[59]  Donald D. Smith.  The Sarcocystidae: Sarcocystis, Frenkelia, Toxoplasma, Besnoitia, Hammondia, and Cystoisospora1 , 1981 .

[60]  J. Dubey,et al.  Equine protozoal myelitis in Panamanian horses and isolation of Sarcocystis neurona. , 1992, The Journal of parasitology.

[61]  J. Cummings,et al.  Sarcocystis neurona n. sp. (Protozoa: Apicomplexa), the etiologic agent of equine protozoal myeloencephalitis. , 1991, The Journal of parasitology.

[62]  J. Wastling,et al.  Comparison of two gene amplification methods for the detection of Toxoplasma gondii in experimentally infected sheep. , 1993, Journal of medical microbiology.

[63]  A. Johnson,et al.  Phylogenetic relationships of Sarcocystis species from sheep, goats, cattle and mice based on ribosomal RNA sequences. , 1992, International journal for parasitology.

[64]  J. Barta,et al.  Evolutionary relationships of avian Eimeria species among other Apicomplexan protozoa: monophyly of the apicomplexa is supported. , 1991, Molecular biology and evolution.

[65]  J. Dubey,et al.  Lesions in sheep inoculated with Sarcocystis tenella sporocysts from canine feces. , 1988, Veterinary parasitology.

[66]  I. Robertson,et al.  A survey of Western Australian dogs for Sarcocystis spp and other intestinal parasites. , 2008, Australian veterinary journal.

[67]  P. Brindley,et al.  The phylogeny of Neospora caninum. , 1994, Molecular and biochemical parasitology.

[68]  G. H. Collins,et al.  Studies on Sarcocystis species III: The macrocystic species of sheep. , 1979, New Zealand veterinary journal.

[69]  J. C. Fox,et al.  Equine Protozoal Myeloencephalitis: Antigen Analysis of Cultured Sarcocystis Neurona Merozoites , 1993, Journal of veterinary diagnostic investigation : official publication of the American Association of Veterinary Laboratory Diagnosticians, Inc.

[70]  F. Kibenge,et al.  Development of genomic probes to Sarcocystis cruzi (Apicomplexa). , 1991, Veterinary parasitology.

[71]  J. Dubey.  A review of Sarcocystis of domestic animals and of other coccidia of cats and dogs. , 1976, Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association.

[72]  G. Olsen,et al.  Ribosomal RNA: a key to phylogeny , 1993, FASEB journal : official publication of the Federation of American Societies for Experimental Biology.

[73]  A. Heydorn.  Zur Entwicklung von Sarcocystis arieticanis n. sp , 1985 .

[74]  B. Gjerde.  Sarcocystis Infection in Wild Reindeer (Rangifer Tarandus) From Hardangervidda in Southern Norway: with a Description of The Cysts of Sarcocystis Hardangeri N. Sp. , 1984, Acta Veterinaria Scandinavica.

[75]  C. Speer,et al.  Sarcocystis: Infection and Disease of Humans, Livestock, Wildlife, and other Hosts , 2019, Coccidiosis of Man and Domestic Animals.

[76]  J. Laarman,et al.  Current concepts on the biology, evolution and taxonomy of tissue cyst-forming eimeriid coccidia. , 1982, Advances in parasitology.

[77]  M. Schlegel,et al.  Protist evolution and phylogeny as discerned from small subunit ribosomal RNA sequence comparisons. , 1991, European journal of protistology.

[78]  J. K. Frenkel,et al.  Beyond the oocyst: Over the molehills and mountains of coccidialand. , 1987, Parasitology today.

[79]  J. Dubey,et al.  Sarcocystis canis n. sp. (Apicomplexa: Sarcocystidae), the etiologic agent of generalized coccidiosis in dogs. , 1991, The Journal of parasitology.

[80]  G. Cothran,et al.  Phylogenetic relationship of Sarcocystis neurona to other members of the family Sarcocystidae based on small subunit ribosomal RNA gene sequence. , 1994, The Journal of parasitology.

[81]  M. Elwasila,et al.  Comparison of the structure of Sarcocystis cuniculi of the European rabbit (Oryctolagus cuniculus) and Sarcocystis leporum of the cottontail rabbit (Sylvilagus floridanus) by light and electron microscopy. , 1984, Acta veterinaria Hungarica.

[82]  A. Johnson,et al.  Phylogenetic relationships of the apicomplexan protist Sarcocystis as determined by small subunit ribosomal RNA comparison. , 1988, The Journal of parasitology.

[83]  S. J. Upton,et al.  Taxonomy and Life Cycles , 2019, Coccidiosis of Man and Domestic Animals.

[84]  H. Ao,et al.  The effect of an acute Sarcocystis suihominis infection on the fattening weight of market piglets , 1988 .

[85]  A. Gajadhar,et al.  Sensitive and specific polymerase chain reaction detection of Toxoplasma gondii for veterinary and medical diagnosis. , 1993, Canadian journal of veterinary research = Revue canadienne de recherche veterinaire.

[86]  C. Howe,et al.  The inference of evolutionary trees from molecular data. , 1992, Comparative biochemistry and physiology. B, Comparative biochemistry.

[87]  D. Buxton,et al.  Immune responses against Toxoplasma and Sarcocystis infections in ruminants: diagnosis and prospects for vaccination. , 1990, Revue scientifique et technique.

[88]  A. Johnson,et al.  Phylogenetic relationships between Toxoplasma and Sarcocystis deduced from a comparison of 18S rDNA sequences , 1995, Parasitology.

[89]  Michel Casse,et al.  Origin and evolution of the elements , 1993 .