National Study on Carless and Special Needs Evacuation Planning: A Literature Review

The objective of this study was to research how state departments of transportation (DOTs), metropolitan planning organizations (MPOs), transit agencies, and local governments are considering, in the context of their emergency preparedness planning, the unique needs of minority, low-income, elderly, disabled, and limited English proficient (LEP) persons, especially for households without vehicles (referred to as “carless” in this report). This study provides guidance to ensure that future evacuations efficiently and effectively accommodate disadvantaged populations, including people who for any reasons lack access to private automobile transportation. For this review the authors scanned several sources including state DOTs, MPOs, transit agencies, and local government emergency preparedness planning for information on the evacuation of carless residents, including minority, low-income, elderly, disabled and residents with limited mobility and health problems. The review includes scholarly, professional, and government sources, highlighting best practices, and identifying areas of weakness within the field of emergency preparedness with respect to the target population of this study. This review discusses different needs for different types of natural and human-induced disasters. It also discusses the role for an integrated, multi-modal approach for evacuation planning so all levels of government can assist with evacuating people in the most efficient manner possible. This literature review serves to characterize the current state of thinking and practice on the subject of carless and special needs evacuation planning.

[1]  Alice Fothergill,et al.  Gender, Risk, and Disaster , 1996, International Journal of Mass Emergencies & Disasters.

[2]  David T. Herbert,et al.  The Emergency Evacuation of Cities: A Cross-National Historical and Geographical Study , 1991 .

[3]  L. Peek,et al.  Poverty and Disasters in the United States: A Review of Recent Sociological Findings , 2004 .

[4]  Marc L. Levitan,et al.  National Review of Hurricane Evacuation Plans and Policies , 2001 .

[5]  Russell R. Dynes,et al.  Organized Behavior in Disaster. , 1972 .

[6]  Gilbert F. White,et al.  Assessment Of Research On Natural Hazards , 1975 .

[7]  Jay Levinson,et al.  Transportation disaster response handbook , 2002 .

[8]  S. Raphael,et al.  Socioeconomic Differences in Household Automobile Ownership Rates: Implications for Evacuation Policy , 2006 .

[9]  F. Iklé,et al.  Evacuation and the Cohesion of Urban Groups , 1952, American Journal of Sociology.

[10]  A. Fothergill,et al.  Race, ethnicity and disasters in the United States: a review of the literature. , 1999, Disasters.

[11]  M. Lindell,et al.  Evacuation planning in emergency management , 1981 .

[12]  Harold D. Foster,et al.  Resilience Theory and System Evaluation , 1993 .

[13]  Brian Wolshon,et al.  EMERGENCY EVACUATION: ENSURING SAFE AND EFFICIENT TRANSPORTATION OUT OF ENDANGERED AREAS , 2003 .

[14]  Bob Edwards,et al.  Comparative Assessment of Impacts and Recovery from Hurricane Floyd among Student and Community Households , 2005 .

[15]  Brian Wolshon,et al.  PLANNING FOR THE EVACUATION OF NEW ORLEANS , 2002 .

[16]  Shirley Laska,et al.  Social Vulnerabilities and Hurricane Katrina: An Unnatural Disaster in New Orleans , 2006 .

[17]  Brenda D. Phillips,et al.  Cultural Diversity in Disasters: Sheltering, Housing, and Long Term Recovery , 1993, International Journal of Mass Emergencies & Disasters.

[18]  Joseph Scanlon.  Transportation in emergencies: an often neglected story , 2003 .

[19]  M. Olsen.  Social and Political Participation of Blacks , 1970 .

[20]  Walter Gillis Peacock,et al.  Hurricane Andrew Ethnicity, Gender, and the Sociology of Disasters , 1997 .

[21]  E. L. Quarantelli,et al.  Emergent Citizen Groups and Emergency Management. , 1985 .

[22]  Michael K. Lindell.  Assessing emergency preparedness in support of hazardous facility risk analyses: Application to siting a US hazardous waste incinerator , 1995 .

[23]  G. A. Stoetzel,et al.  Planning concepts and decision criteria for sheltering and evacuation in a nuclear power plant emergency. Executive report , 1985 .

[24]  Erik Auf der Heide,et al.  Disaster Response: Principles of Preparation and Coordination , 1989 .

[25]  R. Blendon,et al.  Experiences of hurricane Katrina evacuees in Houston shelters: implications for future planning. , 2006, American journal of public health.

[26]  Patric R. Spence,et al.  Media Use and Information Needs of the Disabled During a Natural Disaster , 2007, Journal of health care for the poor and underserved.

[27]  S. Gundel.  Towards a New Typology of Crises , 2005 .

[28]  Thomas Nagel,et al.  Equality and Partiality , 1993 .

[29]  R. Liu,et al.  Policy Development and New Immigrant Communities: A Case Study of Citizen Input in Defining Transit Problems , 2005 .

[30]  David A. McEntire,et al.  Emergent Phenomena and Multiorganizational Coordination in Disasters: Lessons from the Research Literature , 2002, International Journal of Mass Emergencies & Disasters.

[31]  Steven I-Jy Chien,et al.  Analysis and Modeling of Simultaneous and Staged Emergency Evacuations , 2007 .

[32]  Brian Wolshon,et al.  Application of TRANSIMS for the Multimodal Microscale Simulation of the New Orleans Emergency Evacuation Plan , 2009 .

[33]  N J Pedersen.  MULTIMODAL TRANSPORTATION PLANNING AT THE STATE LEVEL - STATE OF THE PRACTICE AND FUTURE ISSUES , 2000 .

[34]  A. Taylor.  Disasters and Disaster Stress , 1989 .

[35]  R. Perry.  What Is a Disaster , 2007 .

[36]  Hilde Bojer.  Distributional Justice: Theory and Measurement , 2003 .

[37]  A. E. Desrosiers,et al.  An Analysis of Evacuation Time Estimates Around 52 Nuclear Power Plant Sites Analysis and Evaluation , 1981 .

[38]  M. Hickman,et al.  ROLE OF PUBLIC TRANSPORTATION OPERATIONS IN EMERGENCY MANAGEMENT: RESEARCH REPORT , 1999 .

[39]  Russell R. Dynes.  Organizational Involvement and Changes in Community Structure in Disaster , 1970 .

[40]  M. Lindell,et al.  Emergency Planning , 2006 .

[41]  W. L. Shirley,et al.  Social Vulnerability to Environmental Hazards , 2003 .

[42]  A S Iannuzziello.  Communicating with Persons with Disabilities in a Multimodal Transit Environment , 2001 .

[43]  Dahlia V Kirkpatrick,et al.  Hurricane Emergency Planning by Home Health Providers Serving the Poor , 2007, Journal of health care for the poor and underserved.

[44]  Gang-Len Chang,et al.  Two-Level Integrated Optimization System for Planning of Emergency Evacuation , 2006 .

[45]  J. Hudson.  A DIAMOND ANNIVERSARY , 1979 .

[46]  Thiago Tinoco Pires,et al.  An approach for modeling human cognitive behavior in evacuation models , 2005 .

[47]  A J DeBlasio,et al.  Effects of Catastrophic Events on Transportation System Management and Operations, New York City ? September 11 , 2002 .

[48]  B. Wisner,et al.  At Risk: Natural Hazards, People's Vulnerability and Disasters , 1996 .

[49]  Michael H Triche,et al.  EMERGENCY EVACUATION MODELING BASED ON GEOGRAPHICAL INFORMATION SYSTEM DATA , 2003 .

[50]  Edward K. Morlok,et al.  Measuring capacity flexibility of a transportation system , 2004 .

[51]  D. B. Hess,et al.  Multi-Modal Mass Evacuation in Upstate New York: A Review of Disaster Plans , 2007 .

[52]  Jerry T. Mitchell,et al.  Revealing the Vulnerability of People and Places: A Case Study of Georgetown County, South Carolina , 2000 .

[53]  Chester G. Wilmot,et al.  Comparison of Alternative Trip Generation Models for Hurricane Evacuation , 2004 .

[54]  E L Quarantelli,et al.  Ten criteria for evaluating the management of community disasters. , 1997, Disasters.

[55]  L. Pojman,et al.  Equality: Selected Readings , 1997 .

[56]  Dennis Mckerlie.  Equality and Time , 1989, Ethics.

[57]  M. Adler.  Equity Analysis and Natural Hazards Policy , 2005 .

[58]  A. Fothergill.  Women's roles in a disaster , 1999 .

[59]  Brian Wolshon.  Contraflow for Evacuation Traffic Management , 2008, Encyclopedia of GIS.

[60]  Bob Edwards,et al.  Gender and Evacuation: A Closer Look at Why Women are More Likely to Evacuate for Hurricanes , 2002 .

[61]  Peter Bromley,et al.  Public Transportation Security: Volume 7: Public Transportation Emergency Mobilization and Emergency Operations Guide , 2005 .

[62]  Richard L. Church,et al.  Mapping evacuation risk on transportation networks using a spatial optimization model , 2000 .

[64]  Brian Wolshon,et al.  Review of Policies and Practices for Hurricane Evacuation. I: Transportation Planning, Preparedness, and Response , 2005 .

[65]  William W Chenault,et al.  Evacuation Planning in the TMI Accident , 1980 .

[66]  Michael T. Klare,et al.  The worst is yet to come , 1982 .

[67]  R. Perry,et al.  The Role of Ethnicity in the Emergency Decision‐Making Process* , 1982 .

[68]  Nancy W Okasaki.  IMPROVING TRANSPORTATION RESPONSE AND SECURITY FOLLOWING A DISASTER: THE CHANGING NATURE OF TERRORISM PRESENTS NEW CHALLENGES FOR PUBLIC TRANSPORTATION AGENCIES. , 2002 .

[69]  Todd Litman,et al.  Lessons From Katrina and Rita: What Major Disasters Can Teach Transportation Planners , 2006 .

[70]  Henry X. Liu,et al.  Model Reference Adaptive Control Framework for Real-Time Traffic Management Under Emergency Evacuation , 2007 .

[71]  J. Morduch.  Poverty and Vulnerability , 1994 .

[72]  Anthony Oliver-Smith,et al.  The Martyred City: Death and Rebirth in the Andes. , 1986 .

[73]  Russell R. Dynes,et al.  Situational Altruism: Toward an Explanation of Pathologies in Disaster Assistance , 1994 .

[74]  Susan L. Cutter,et al.  Emerging Hurricane Evacuation Issues: Hurricane Floyd and South Carolina , 2002 .

[75]  Kathleen M. Carley,et al.  Organizational Learning Under Fire , 1997 .

[76]  Alison M. Culpen,et al.  Vulnerability of the Elderly during Natural Hazard Events , 2007 .

[77]  Brian Wolshon.  Empirical Characterization of Mass Evacuation Traffic Flow , 2008 .

[78]  M D Meyer.  THE ROLE OF THE METROPOLITAN PLANNING ORGANIZATION (MPO) IN PREPARING FOR SECURITY INCIDENTS AND TRANSPORTATION SYSTEM RESPONSE , 2005 .

[79]  T. Homer-Dixon.  The Upside of Down: Catastrophe, Creativity and the Renewal of Civilization , 2006 .

[80]  Richard L. Church,et al.  Modelling Community Evacuation Vulnerability Using GIS , 1997, Int. J. Geogr. Inf. Sci..

[81]  Irwin G. Sarason.  Communities in Disaster: A Sociological Analysis of Collective Stress Situations. , 1970 .

[82]  Jayajit Chakraborty,et al.  Population Evacuation: Assessing Spatial Variability in Geophysical Risk and Social Vulnerability to Natural Hazards , 2005 .

[83]  Ronald W. Perry,et al.  Behavioral foundations of community emergency planning , 1992 .

[84]  A J Ballard,et al.  LOW SPEED DESIGN CRITERIA FOR RESIDENTIAL STREETS , 2002 .

[85]  Virginia P Sisiopiku,et al.  Application of Traffic Simulation Modeling for Improved Emergency Preparedness Planning , 2007 .

[86]  Brian Wolshon,et al.  "One-way-out": contraflow freeway operation for hurricane evacuation , 2001 .

[87]  Stephen Lockwood,et al.  Surface Transportation Security, Volume 6: Guide for Emergency Transportation Operations , 2005 .

[88]  Thomas E. Drabek,et al.  Understanding disaster warning responses. , 1999 .

[89]  C. K. Mertz,et al.  Gender, race, and perception of environmental health risks. , 1994, Risk analysis : an official publication of the Society for Risk Analysis.

[90]  B H Morrow,et al.  Identifying and mapping community vulnerability. , 1999, Disasters.

[91]  Michael K. Lindell,et al.  Household Decision Making and Evacuation in Response to Hurricane Lili , 2005 .

[92]  S. Laska,et al.  Connecting Future Evacuation to Current Recovery: Saving the Lives of Older People in the Next Catastrophe , 2007 .

[93]  R. Turner,et al.  Organized Behavior in Disaster. , 1972 .

[94]  Chester G. Wilmot,et al.  Data Collection Related to Emergency Events , 2006 .

[95]  Everett M. Rogers,et al.  How the News Media Operate in Natural Disasters , 1987 .

[96]  Frank J Wilson.  Houston METRO's hurricane² response , 2005 .

[97]  Glen W White,et al.  Assessing the impact of Hurricane Katrina on persons with disabilities. , 2007, The Kansas nurse.

[98]  G. Giuliano,et al.  Impacts of the Northridge Earthquake on transit and highway use , 1998 .