Measuring nicotine dependence: A review of the Fagerstrom Tolerance Questionnaire

In the last decade, the importance of nicotine in maintaining smoking and in cessation difficulty has been acknowledged. Consequently, this has led to efforts to measure nicotine dependence. This paper focuses on a widely used, paper-and-pencil test of nicotine dependence- the Fagerstrom Tolerance Questionnaire (FTQ). The findings indicate that the FTQ correlates with other proposed measures of nicotine dependence (carbon monoxide, nicotine, and cotinine levels). The connection between FTQ scores and withdrawal symptoms is weak. In clinic outcome trials, the FTQ predicted success where no pharmacologic treatment was involved, while nicotine replacement appeared to mask the relation between FTQ scores and outcome. However, the FTQ may predict outcome with nicotine replacement as a function of dose. In placebo-controlled, nicotine replacement trials, FTQ scores were related to success by treatment. Problems with the FTQ are described with focus on item difficulties and analyses of the scale.

[1]  D. Hatsukami,et al.  Effect of nicotine on the tobacco withdrawal syndrome , 1984, Psychopharmacology.

[2]  A. C. McKENNELL,et al.  Smoking Motivation Factors , 1970 .

[3]  M. Stockner,et al.  Effect of Nicotine Chewing Gum in Combination with Group Counseling On the Cessation of Smoking , 1988 .

[4]  J. Rose,et al.  Citric acid aerosol as a potential smoking cessation aid. , 1987, Chest.

[5]  R. Mermelstein,et al.  Some methodological cautions in the use of the Tolerance Questionnaire. , 1986, Addictive behaviors.

[6]  H. Westling,et al.  Nicotine-containing chewing gum as an anti-smoking aid , 1973, Psychopharmacologia.

[7]  H. Leventhal,et al.  Pleasure, addiction, and habit: factors in verbal report of factors in smoking behavior? , 1976, Journal of abnormal psychology.

[8]  R. West,et al.  Pre-abstinence smoke intake and smoking motivation as predictors of severity of cigarette withdrawal symptoms , 2004, Psychopharmacology.

[9]  M. McNabb.  Nicotine tolerance questionnaire scores and plasma nicotine: no correlation. , 1985, Addictive behaviors.

[10]  Fagerström Ko.  Efficacy of nicotine chewing gum: a review. , 1988 .

[11]  J. Peto,et al.  The Classification of Smoking by Factorial Structure of Motives , 1974 .

[12]  R. West,et al.  Effect of nicotine replacement on the cigarette withdrawal syndrome. , 1984, British journal of addiction.

[13]  R West,et al.  Nicotine: a dependence-producing substance. , 1988, Progress in clinical and biological research.

[14]  R. West.  Psychology and pharmacology in cigarette withdrawal. , 1984, Journal of psychosomatic research.

[15]  F. Lebargy.  [Nicotine dependence]. , 2019, Revue de pneumologie clinique.

[16]  D. G. Williams.  Different cigarette-smoker classification factors and subjective state in acute abstinence , 1979, Psychopharmacology.

[17]  S. Tomkins,et al.  The experience of affect as a determinant of smoking behavior: a series of validity studies. , 1973, Journal of abnormal psychology.

[18]  J. W. Richards,et al.  Nicotine chewing gum and group counseling in smoking cessation. , 1988, The New England journal of medicine.

[19]  Henningfield Je.  Pharmacologic basis and treatment of cigarette smoking. , 1984 .

[20]  J. Harackiewicz,et al.  Nicotine gum and self-help manuals in smoking cessation: an evaluation in a medical context. , 1988, Addictive behaviors.

[21]  J. Henningfield.  Pharmacologic basis and treatment of cigarette smoking. , 1984, The Journal of clinical psychiatry.

[22]  M. Jarvik,et al.  Degree of addiction and effectiveness of nicotine gum therapy for smoking. , 1984, The American journal of psychiatry.

[23]  K. Fagerström.  Efficacy of nicotine chewing gum: a review. , 1988, Progress in clinical and biological research.

[24]  K. Fagerström,et al.  Measuring degree of physical dependence to tobacco smoking with reference to individualization of treatment. , 1978, Addictive behaviors.

[25]  J. Hughes,et al.  Failure to support the validity of the Fagerstrom Tolerance Questionnaire as a measure of physiological tolerance to nicotine. , 1988, Addictive behaviors.

[26]  D. Hatsukami,et al.  Short-term effects of nicotine gum. , 1985, NIDA research monograph.

[27]  Keith Wesnes,et al.  Effects of scopolamine and nicotine on human rapid information processing performance , 2004, Psychopharmacology.

[28]  E. Wynder,et al.  Determinants of quitting smoking. , 1987, American journal of public health.

[29]  M. Jarvik,et al.  Nicotine vs. placebo gum in the alleviation of withdrawal during smoking cessation. , 1984, Addictive behaviors.

[30]  D. Hatsukami,et al.  Signs and symptoms of tobacco withdrawal. , 1986, Archives of general psychiatry.

[31]  K. Fagerström,et al.  Compensation and effective smoking by different nicotine dependent smokers , 1981 .

[32]  R. Herning,et al.  Blood cotinine levels as indicators of smoking treatment outcome , 1984, Clinical pharmacology and therapeutics.

[33]  P. Tønnesen.  Dose and nicotine dependence as determinants of nicotine gum efficacy. , 1988, Progress in clinical and biological research.

[34]  D. Abrams,et al.  Nicotine dependence and likelihood of quitting smoking. , 1987, Addictive behaviors.

[35]  K. Fagerström.  Effects of nicotine chewing gum and follow-up appointments in physician-based smoking cessation. , 1984, Preventive medicine.

[36]  J. L. Schwartz.  Review and evaluation of smoking cessation methods : the United States and Canada, 1978-1985 , 1987 .

[37]  M. Stitzer,et al.  Smoking relapse: the role of pharmacological and behavioral factors. , 1988, Progress in clinical and biological research.

[38]  C. Pomerleau,et al.  Nicotine replacement : a critical evaluation , 1988 .

[39]  S. Tomkins,et al.  Psychological model for smoking behavior. , 1966, American journal of public health and the nation's health.

[40]  A. Hjalmarson.  Effect of nicotine chewing gum in smoking cessation. A randomized, placebo-controlled, double-blind study. , 1984, JAMA.

[41]  K. Fagerström.  A comparison of psychological and pharmacological treatment in smoking cessation , 1982, Journal of Behavioral Medicine.

[42]  S. Hall,et al.  Psychological and pharmacological approaches to smoking relapse prevention. , 1985, NIDA research monograph.

[43]  C. Pomerleau,et al.  Relationship between nicotine tolerance questionnaire scores and plasma cotinine. , 1990, Addictive behaviors.

[44]  M. Kornitzer,et al.  A double blind study of 2 mg versus 4 mg nicotine-gum in an industrial setting. , 1987, Journal of psychosomatic research.

[45]  K. Fagerström.  Effects of a nicotine-enriched cigarette on nicotine titration, daily cigarette consumption, and levels of carbon monoxide, cotinine, and nicotine , 2004, Psychopharmacology.

[46]  B. Olson,et al.  Efficacy of nicotine chewing gum in facilitating smoking cessation. , 1984, Journal of the American Dental Association.

[47]  O. Pomerleau,et al.  Nocotine dependence in cigarette smoking: An empirically-based, multivariate model , 1983, Pharmacology Biochemistry and Behavior.

[48]  M. Jarvik,et al.  Nicotine gum in smoking cessation: a placebo-controlled, double-blind trial. , 1983, Addictive behaviors.

[49]  H. Dewit,et al.  Behavioral and pharmacological treatment of cigarette smoking: end of treatment comparisons. , 1986, Addictive behaviors.

[50]  P. Barriot,et al.  Treatment of severe chloroquine poisoning. , 1988, The New England journal of medicine.

[51]  P. Tønnesen,et al.  Two and four mg nicotine chewing gum and group counselling in smoking cessation: an open, randomized, controlled trial with a 22 month follow-up. , 1988, Addictive behaviors.

[52]  Hall Sm,et al.  Psychological and pharmacological approaches to smoking relapse prevention , 1982 .

[53]  Daniel Horn,et al.  A Scale to Differentiate between Types of Smoking as Related to the Management of Affect , 1969 .