New Perspectives of Alzheimer Disease Diagnosis - the Most Popular and Future Methods.

As lifespan tendency is increasing, age-related diseases are becoming a burden to the society and health care system. Mostly incurable, constitute a subject of researchers' work. In this review, the insight into the problem of Alzheimer Disease (AD) diagnostics will be given. The unquestionable diagnosis is possible only during a post-mortem examination. AD is known as one of the forms of dementia and its differentiation from mild cognitive impairments has to be improved. Despite a great diagnostic progress during last decades, medicine still needs more accurate tools for an early detection of this incurable disease. It is hoped that this strategy will enable an administration of more aggressive therapy preventing AD development. Nowadays, pharmacotherapy is based mainly on symptomatic treatment which is not able to reverse pathological changes caused by the disease. Hence, more accurate identifying testing and monitoring methods are crucial to reveal new therapeutic targets. The most popular techniques present for detecting local brain functional changes use nuclear medicine imaging devices: Positron Emission Tomography (PET) and Single Photon Emission Computed Tomography (SPECT). Constant process of improving is not possible without new radiotracers. Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) is a tool for an assessment of structural changes in brain tissue. However, providing satisfying results, these methods are not completely specific and accurate. As very promising hallmarks of AD enhancing high accuracy of testing, biomarkers - tau tangles and β-amyloid plaques have been found. At the present time they are being used only as an additional examination, one day they may become a gold standard of AD diagnostics.

[1]  B. Vellas,et al.  Using PET with 18F-AV-45 (florbetapir) to quantify brain amyloid load in a clinical environment , 2012, European Journal of Nuclear Medicine and Molecular Imaging.

[2]  C. Jack,et al.  Cerebral amyloid PET imaging in Alzheimer’s disease , 2013, Acta Neuropathologica.

[3]  G. Small,et al.  Positron emission tomography scans obtained for the evaluation of cognitive dysfunction. , 2008, Seminars in nuclear medicine.

[4]  D. Selkoe.  Alzheimer's disease. , 2011, Cold Spring Harbor perspectives in biology.

[5]  L. Honig,et al.  Laboratory biomarkers in Alzheimer’s disease , 2007, Current neurology and neuroscience reports.

[6]  L. Schneider,et al.  Defeating Alzheimer's disease and other dementias: a priority for European science and society , 2016, The Lancet Neurology.

[7]  T. Dyrks,et al.  Synthesis and evaluation of 6-(3-[(18)F]fluoro-2-hydroxypropyl)-substituted 2-pyridylbenzothiophenes and 2-pyridylbenzothiazoles as potential PET tracers for imaging Aβ plaques. , 2016, Bioorganic & medicinal chemistry.

[8]  A. Cheema,et al.  The critical need for defining preclinical biomarkers in Alzheimer's disease , 2014, Alzheimer's & Dementia.

[9]  Michèle Allard,et al.  In vivo SPECT imaging of vesicular acetylcholine transporter using [123I]-IBVM in early Alzheimer's disease , 2008, NeuroImage.

[10]  Klaus P. Ebmeier,et al.  Neuroimaging in dementia. , 2005, International review of neurobiology.

[11]  K. Davis,et al.  Biological markers in Alzheimer disease. , 2002, The American journal of geriatric psychiatry : official journal of the American Association for Geriatric Psychiatry.

[12]  K. Broich,et al.  Perspectives Florbetapir ( 18 F) for brain amyloid positron emission tomography: Highlights on the European marketing approval , 2014 .

[13]  M. Bobinski,et al.  Prediction of cognitive decline in normal elderly subjects with 2-[18F]fluoro-2-deoxy-d-glucose/positron-emission tomography (FDG/PET) , 2001, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America.

[14]  B. Borroni,et al.  Predicting Alzheimer dementia in mild cognitive impairment patients. Are biomarkers useful? , 2006, European journal of pharmacology.

[15]  T. Finucane.  Alzheimer disease: current concepts and emerging diagnostic and therapeutic strategies. , 2004, Annals of internal medicine.

[16]  H. Aizenstein,et al.  Recent Advances in Neuroimaging Biomarkers in Geriatric Psychiatry , 2013, Current Psychiatry Reports.

[17]  K. Jellinger,et al.  Alzheimer 100 – highlights in the history of Alzheimer research , 2006, Journal of Neural Transmission.

[18]  R. Schwartz.  Apparent diffusion coefficient mapping in patients with Alzheimer disease or mild cognitive impairment and in normally aging control subjects: present and future. , 2001, Radiology.

[19]  Paul M Thompson,et al.  Current and future uses of neuroimaging for cognitively impaired patients , 2008, The Lancet Neurology.

[20]  U. Haberkorn,et al.  Neural correlates of delayed episodic memory in patients with mild cognitive impairment—A FDG PET study , 2009, Neuroscience Letters.

[21]  Nick C Fox,et al.  Mapping the evolution of regional atrophy in Alzheimer's disease: Unbiased analysis of fluid-registered serial MRI , 2002, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America.

[22]  Harald Hampel,et al.  Biological markers of amyloid β-related mechanisms in Alzheimer's disease , 2010, Experimental Neurology.

[23]  K. Blennow,et al.  CSF and blood biomarkers for the diagnosis of Alzheimer's disease: a systematic review and meta-analysis , 2016, The Lancet Neurology.

[24]  David M. Holtzman,et al.  Progress Update: Fluid and Imaging Biomarkers in Alzheimer’s Disease , 2014, Biological Psychiatry.

[25]  Steven H. Liang,et al.  Alternative approaches for PET radiotracer development in Alzheimer's disease: imaging beyond plaque. , 2014, Journal of labelled compounds & radiopharmaceuticals.

[26]  Personalized Medicine in Neurodegenerative Diseases: How Far Away? , 2013, Molecular Diagnosis & Therapy.

[27]  Yuguo Yu,et al.  Measurement of Blood Thiamine Metabolites for Alzheimer's Disease Diagnosis , 2015, EBioMedicine.

[28]  D. Silverman.  Brain 18F-FDG PET in the diagnosis of neurodegenerative dementias: comparison with perfusion SPECT and with clinical evaluations lacking nuclear imaging. , 2004, Journal of nuclear medicine : official publication, Society of Nuclear Medicine.

[29]  P. Trzepacz,et al.  Comparison of neuroimaging modalities for the prediction of conversion from mild cognitive impairment to Alzheimer's dementia , 2013, Neurobiology of Aging.

[30]  H. Saji,et al.  Technetium-99m labeled pyridyl benzofuran derivatives as single photon emission computed tomography imaging probes for β-amyloid plaques in Alzheimer's brains. , 2012, Journal of medicinal chemistry.

[31]  Keith A. Johnson,et al.  Amyloid deposition detected with florbetapir F 18 (18F-AV-45) is related to lower episodic memory performance in clinically normal older individuals , 2013, Neurobiology of Aging.

[32]  P. Scheltens,et al.  Can we do better in developing new drugs for Alzheimer's disease? , 2009, Alzheimer's & Dementia.

[33]  Ann D. Cohen,et al.  Early detection of Alzheimer's disease using PiB and FDG PET , 2014, Neurobiology of Disease.

[34]  J. Weuve,et al.  Deaths in the United States among persons with Alzheimer's disease (2010–2050) , 2014, Alzheimer's & Dementia.

[35]  A. Smith,et al.  Imaging the progression of Alzheimer pathology through the brain , 2002, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America.

[36]  M. Weiner,et al.  Neuroimaging markers for the prediction and early diagnosis of Alzheimer's disease dementia , 2011, Trends in Neurosciences.

[37]  F. Reischies,et al.  [Early diagnosis of dementia]. , 2002, Wiener medizinische Wochenschrift.

[38]  A. Wall,et al.  PET imaging of the in vivo brain acetylcholinesterase activity and nicotine binding in galantamine-treated patients with AD , 2008, Neurobiology of Aging.

[39]  H. Saji,et al.  Synthesis and evaluation of (-)- and (+)-[¹¹C]galanthamine as PET tracers for cerebral acetylcholinesterase imaging. , 2014, Bioorganic & medicinal chemistry.

[40]  Paul Edison,et al.  A European multicentre PET study of fibrillar amyloid in Alzheimer’s disease , 2012, European Journal of Nuclear Medicine and Molecular Imaging.

[41]  H. Kolb,et al.  [18F]T807, a novel tau positron emission tomography imaging agent for Alzheimer's disease , 2013, Alzheimer's & Dementia.

[42]  E. Camargo.  Brain SPECT in neurology and psychiatry. , 2001, Journal of nuclear medicine : official publication, Society of Nuclear Medicine.

[43]  Keith A. Johnson,et al.  Florbetapir (F18-AV-45) PET to assess amyloid burden in Alzheimer's disease dementia, mild cognitive impairment, and normal aging , 2013, Alzheimer's & Dementia.

[44]  H. Matsuda,et al.  Molecular neuroimaging in Alzheimer's disease. , 2012, Neuroimaging clinics of North America.

[45]  M. Findeis.  The role of amyloid β peptide 42 in Alzheimer's disease , 2007 .

[46]  Kei Yamada,et al.  Diagnosis of Alzheimer’s disease using brain perfusion SPECT and MR imaging: which modality achieves better diagnostic accuracy? , 2005, European Journal of Nuclear Medicine and Molecular Imaging.

[47]  A. Schnider,et al.  Adaptive reorganization of cortical networks in Alzheimer’s disease , 2013, Clinical Neurophysiology.

[48]  M. Albert,et al.  MRI measures of entorhinal cortex vs hippocampus in preclinical AD , 2002, Neurology.

[49]  Mingzhang Gao,et al.  Synthesis of a PET tau tracer [(11)C]PBB3 for imaging of Alzheimer's disease. , 2015, Bioorganic & medicinal chemistry letters.

[50]  M. Haratake,et al.  Development of alkoxy styrylchromone derivatives for imaging of cerebral amyloid-β plaques with SPECT. , 2015, Bioorganic & medicinal chemistry letters.

[51]  Kazuhiko Yanai,et al.  Comparison of the binding characteristics of [18F]THK-523 and other amyloid imaging tracers to Alzheimer’s disease pathology , 2012, European Journal of Nuclear Medicine and Molecular Imaging.

[52]  Jianhua Jia,et al.  (99m)Tc-labeled-2-arylbenzoxazole derivatives as potential Aβ imaging probes for single-photon emission computed tomography. , 2015, European journal of medicinal chemistry.

[53]  D. Galimberti,et al.  Progress in Alzheimer’s disease , 2012, Journal of Neurology.

[54]  R. Zatorre,et al.  Where Can I Find out More? , 2022 .

[55]  L. Thurfjell,et al.  Amyloid PET imaging in Alzheimer’s disease: a comparison of three radiotracers , 2014, European Journal of Nuclear Medicine and Molecular Imaging.

[56]  R. Coleman,et al.  Neuroimaging and early diagnosis of Alzheimer disease: a look to the future. , 2003, Radiology.

[57]  F. Jessen,et al.  Amyloid β peptides in plasma in early diagnosis of Alzheimer's disease: A multicenter study with multiplexing , 2010, Experimental Neurology.

[58]  David Clopton,et al.  Advances in dementia imaging. , 2014, Seminars in roentgenology.

[59]  R. Nagele,et al.  Detection of Alzheimer's disease at mild cognitive impairment and disease progression using autoantibodies as blood-based biomarkers , 2016, Alzheimer's & dementia.