Physiological metrics of mental workload: A review of recent progress

Abstract : This report reviews research on physiological metrics of mental workload performed in the last decade. The focus of the review is on measurement techniques that have potential for fundamental explanation of mental workload and for use in operational environments. The techniques are examined within a framework of measurement criteria. These criteria include: sensitivity, diagnosticity, intrusiveness, reliability, and generality of application. Over 200 articles are covered by the review. Measures reviewed include: electroencephalograms, event-related potentials, magnetoencephalograms, positron emission tomography, electro-oculograms, cardiovascular measures, pupillometry, respiratory measures, and electrodetmal measures. Keywords: Mental workload, Physiological metrics, Electroencephalogram, Magnetoencephalogram, Cardiovascular function, Pupillometry, Respiration, Electrodermal responses.

[1]  F. Donders,et al.  Over de snelheid van psychische Processen , 1868 .

[2]  Carl Gustav Jung On psychophysical relations of the associative experiment , 1907 .

[3]  GALVANOMETRIC OBSERVATION OF THE EMOTIVITY OF A NORMAL SUBJECT (ENGLISH) , 1918 .

[4]  E. Ponder,et al.  ON THE ACT OF BLINKING , 1927 .

[5]  N. Bayley A study of fear by means of the psychogalvanic technique. , 1928 .

[6]  P. Fitts Engineering psychology. , 1958, Annual review of psychology.

[7]  Auditory discrimination. , 1962, Eye, ear, nose & throat monthly.

[8]  W. B. Knowles,et al.  Operator Loading Tasks , 1963, Human factors.

[9]  E. Hess ATTITUDE AND PUPIL SIZE. , 1965, Scientific American.

[10]  D. Lykken,et al.  Correcting psychophysiological measures for individual differences in range. , 1966, Psychological bulletin.

[11]  N Moray,et al.  Where is capacity limited? A survey and a model. , 1967, Acta psychologica.

[12]  J. Lacey Somatic response patterning and stress : some revisions of activation theory , 1967 .

[13]  K. Kalyanaraman,et al.  The Electroencephalogram in , 1968 .

[14]  K Nakajima,et al.  The electroencephalogram. , 1968, Developmental medicine and child neurology.

[15]  D. Kahneman,et al.  Pupillary, heart rate, and skin resistance changes during a mental task. , 1969, Journal of experimental psychology.

[16]  H. Berger On the electroencephalogram of man. , 1969, Electroencephalography and clinical neurophysiology.

[17]  Saul Sternberg,et al.  The discovery of processing stages: Extensions of Donders' method , 1969 .

[18]  B. L. Cusack,et al.  The Measurement of Eye Behavior: Critical and Selected Reviews of Voluntary Eye Movement and Blinking. , 1972 .

[19]  D. Kahneman Attention and Effort , 1973 .

[20]  C. Opmeer The information content of succissive RR-interval times in the ECG. Preliminary results using factor analysis and frequency analysis. , 1973, Ergonomics.

[21]  W W Tryon,et al.  Pupillometry: a survey of sources of variation. , 1975, Psychophysiology.

[22]  L. Young,et al.  Survey of eye movement recording methods , 1975 .

[23]  Martin G Helander,et al.  PHYSIOLOGICAL REACTIONS OF DRIVERS AS INDICATORS OF ROAD TRAFFIC DEMAND , 1975 .

[24]  Daniel G Bobrow,et al.  On data-limited and resource-limited processes , 1975, Cognitive Psychology.

[25]  P. Obrist,et al.  Presidential Address, 1975. The cardiovascular-behavioral interaction--as it appears today. , 1976, Psychophysiology.

[26]  Daniel Gopher,et al.  On the Economy of the Human Processing System: A Model of Multiple Capacity. , 1977 .

[27]  G. McCarthy,et al.  Augmenting mental chronometry: the P300 as a measure of stimulus evaluation time. , 1977, Science.

[28]  A. Ohman,et al.  'Preparedness' and 'arousability' as determinants of electrodermal conditioning. , 1977, Behaviour research and therapy.

[29]  F. Graham,et al.  Constraints on measuring heart rate and period sequentially through real and cardiac time. , 1978, Psychophysiology.

[30]  B. C. Lacey,et al.  Two-way communication between the heart and the brain. Significance of time within the cardiac cycle. , 1978, The American psychologist.

[31]  F. Graham Normality of distributions and homogeneity of variance of heart rate and heart period samples. , 1978, Psychophysiology.

[32]  E. Donchin,et al.  COGNITIVE PSYCHOPHYSIOLOGY: THE ENDOGENOUS COMPONENTS OF THE ERP , 1978 .

[33]  A. Sostek Effects of electrodermal lability and payoff instructions on vigilance performance. , 1978, Psychophysiology.

[34]  A. Crider The electrodermal response: biofeedback and individual difference studies , 1978 .

[35]  A. Starr,et al.  Sensory evoked potentials in clinical disorders of the nervous system. , 1978, Annual review of neuroscience.

[36]  J L Hastrup,et al.  Effects of electrodermal lability and introversion on vigilance decrement. , 1979, Psychophysiology.

[37]  Jerrold M. Levine,et al.  Measurement of Workload by Secondary Tasks , 1979 .

[38]  A S Gevins,et al.  EEG patterns during 'cognitive' tasks. I. Methodology and analysis of complex behaviors. , 1979, Electroencephalography and clinical neurophysiology.

[39]  D. Cohen,et al.  Comparison of the magnetoencephalogram and electroencephalogram. , 1979, Electroencephalography and clinical neurophysiology.

[40]  J. Brady,et al.  Research in the Psychobiology of Human Behavior , 1979 .

[41]  G Salvendy,et al.  Effects of Personality, Perceptual Difficulty and Pacing of a Task on Productivity, Job Satisfaction, and Physiological Stress , 1979, Perceptual and motor skills.

[42]  W W Wierwille,et al.  Physiological Measures of Aircrew Mental Workload , 1979, Human factors.

[43]  Walter W. Wierwille,et al.  Comparison of Five Mental Workload Assessment Procedures in a Moving-Base Driving Simulator , 1979 .

[44]  Christopher D. Wickens,et al.  MEASURES OF WORKLOAD, STRESS AND SECONDARY TASKS , 1979 .

[45]  Andries F. Sanders,et al.  Some Remarks on Mental Load , 1979 .

[46]  G. Mulder Mental Load, Mental Effort and Attention , 1979 .

[47]  Gevins As,et al.  A critical review of electroencephalographic (EEG) correlates of higher cortical functions. , 1980 .

[48]  Cardiac responses to demanding mental load. , 1980, Ergonomics.

[49]  The study of heart rate variability in the newborn. , 1980 .

[50]  Christopher D. Wickens,et al.  The Structure of Attentional Resources , 1980 .

[51]  A. Gevins,et al.  A critical review of electroencephalographic (EEG) correlates of higher cortical functions. , 1980, Critical reviews in bioengineering.

[52]  Magnetic fields of the human brain , 1980 .

[53]  C D Wickens,et al.  The Event-Related Brain Potential as an Index of Display-Monitoring Workload , 1980, Human factors.

[54]  R. A. North,et al.  Voice Entry for Reducing Pilot Workload , 1980 .

[55]  E. Donchin,et al.  P300 and tracking difficulty: evidence for multiple resources in dual-task performance. , 1980, Psychophysiology.

[56]  M C Polson,et al.  Hemispheres as independent resource systems: limited-capacity processing and cerebral specialization. , 1981, Journal of experimental psychology. Human perception and performance.

[57]  A. Friedman,et al.  Hemispheres as independent resource systems: limited-capacity processing and cerebral specialization. , 1981 .

[58]  Jackson Beatty,et al.  Physiological Evidence that Demand for Processing Capacity Varies with Intelligence , 1981 .

[59]  E Donchin,et al.  A metric for thought: a comparison of P300 latency and reaction time. , 1981, Science.

[60]  L. Mulder,et al.  Information processing and cardiovascular control. , 1981, Psychophysiology.

[61]  L. Sokoloff The F.O. Schmitt Lecture in Neuroscience 1980. The relationship between function and energy metabolism: its use in the localization of functional activity in the nervous system. , 1981, Neurosciences Research Program bulletin.

[62]  Frank E. Gomer,et al.  Electrocortical Activity and Operator Workload: A Comparison of Changes in the Electroencephalogram and in Event-Related Potentials , 1981 .

[63]  Sem-Jacobsen Cw,et al.  Brain/computer communication to reduce human error: a perspective. , 1981 .

[64]  C D Wickens,et al.  Multiple Resources, Task-Hemispheric Integrity, and Individual Differences in Time-Sharing , 1981, Human factors.

[65]  M. Dawson,et al.  Allocation of cognitive processing capacity during human autonomic classical conditioning. , 1982, Journal of experimental psychology. General.

[66]  T. Meijman,et al.  Differential psychophysiological reactivity of city bus drivers. , 1982, Ergonomics.

[67]  M. Dawson,et al.  Electrodermal responses to attended and nonattended significant stimuli during dichotic listening. , 1982, Journal of experimental psychology. Human perception and performance.

[68]  J. Beatty,et al.  Phasic not tonic pupillary responses vary with auditory vigilance performance. , 1982, Psychophysiology.

[69]  J. Beatty Task-evoked pupillary responses, processing load, and the structure of processing resources. , 1982, Psychological bulletin.

[70]  N Egelund,et al.  Spectral analysis of heart rate variability as an indicator of driver fatigue. , 1982, Ergonomics.

[71]  D. Barth,et al.  Neuromagnetic localization of epileptiform spike activity in the human brain. , 1982, Science.

[72]  J. Fermaglich Electric Fields of the Brain: The Neurophysics of EEG , 1982 .

[73]  J. Beatty Task-evoked pupillary responses, processing load, and the structure of processing resources. , 1982 .

[74]  E. Lindholm,et al.  Autonomic activity and workload during learning of a simulated aircraft carrier landing task. , 1983, Aviation, space, and environmental medicine.

[75]  W. Wierwille,et al.  A Comparison of Rating Scale, Secondary-Task, Physiological, and Primary-Task Workload Estimation Techniques in a Simulated Flight Task Emphasizing Communications Load , 1983, Human factors.

[76]  C D Wickens,et al.  An Analysis of the Processing Requirements of a Complex Perceptual-Motor Task , 1983, Human factors.

[77]  J Risberg,et al.  Cortical processing of visual and tactile stimuli studied by non-invasive rCBF measurements. , 1983, Human neurobiology.

[78]  E. Donchin,et al.  Performance of concurrent tasks: a psychophysiological analysis of the reciprocity of information-processing resources. , 1983, Science.

[79]  J Beatty,et al.  Response selection and initiation in speeded reactions: a pupillometric analysis. , 1983, Journal of experimental psychology. Human perception and performance.

[80]  J. Furedy,et al.  A consideration of recent criticisms of the T-wave amplitude index of myocardial sympathetic activity. , 1983, Psychophysiology.

[81]  W W Wierwille,et al.  Evaluation of 20 Workload Measures Using a Psychomotor Task in a Moving-Base Aircraft Simulator , 1983, Human factors.

[82]  S. Porges Herart rate oscillation: An index of neural mediation , 1983 .

[83]  R. Ragot,et al.  Perceptual and motor space representation: an event-related potential study. , 1984, Psychophysiology.

[84]  R. Ilmoniemi,et al.  Responses of the primary auditory cortex to pitch changes in a sequence of tone pips: Neuromagnetic recordings in man , 1984, Neuroscience Letters.

[85]  Thomas M. Longridge,et al.  Physiological Assessment of Aircraft Pilot Workload in Simulated Landing and Simulated Hostile Threat Environments , 1984 .

[86]  J. Johnstone,et al.  Probe evoked potentials: theory, method and applications. , 1984, The International journal of neuroscience.

[87]  J Beatty,et al.  Neuromagnetic evidence of spatially distributed sources underlying epileptiform spikes in the human brain. , 1984, Science.

[88]  John A. Stern,et al.  The Eye Blink and Workload Considerations , 1984 .

[89]  K. Michihiro,et al.  Effects of instructions on the skin conductance response , 1984 .

[90]  G Vossel,et al.  Electrodermal habituation speed and visual monitoring performance. , 1984, Psychophysiology.

[91]  J. Stern,et al.  The endogenous eyeblink. , 1984, Psychophysiology.

[92]  M. R. Houck,et al.  Event-related potentials elicited by automatic targets: a dual-task analysis. , 1985, Journal of experimental psychology. Human perception and performance.

[93]  R. Parasuraman Event-Related Brain Potentials and Intermodal Divided Attention , 1985 .

[94]  P A Hancock,et al.  Physiological reflections of mental workload. , 1985, Aviation, space, and environmental medicine.

[95]  J. Mazziotta,et al.  Positron emission tomography: human brain function and biochemistry. , 1985, Science.

[96]  Christopher D. Wickens,et al.  POCs and Performance Decrements: A Reply to Kantowitz and Weldon , 1985 .

[97]  Barry H. Kantowitz,et al.  On Scaling Performance Operating Characteristics: Caveat Emptor , 1985 .

[98]  L C Walrath,et al.  Auditory discrimination and the eyeblink. , 1985, Psychophysiology.

[99]  J. Beatty,et al.  The pupil and stimulus probability. , 1985, Psychophysiology.

[100]  L C Walrath,et al.  Blink activity in a discrimination task as a function of stimulus modality and schedule of presentation. , 1985, Psychophysiology.

[101]  Gary B. Reid Current Status of the Development of the Subjective Workload Assessment Technique , 1985 .

[102]  G. Blowers,et al.  The role of the orienting response in the anticipation of information: a skin conductance response study. , 1985, Psychophysiology.

[103]  A F Kramer The interpretation of the component structure of event-related brain potentials: an analysis of expert judgments. , 1985, Psychophysiology.

[104]  C D Wickens,et al.  Processing of stimulus properties: evidence for dual-task integrality. , 1985, Journal of experimental psychology. Human perception and performance.

[105]  Mansour Rahimi,et al.  Evaluation of 16 Measures of Mental Workload using a Simulated Flight Task Emphasizing Mediational Activity , 1985 .

[106]  J. Beatty,et al.  Pupillary dilations in movement preparation and execution. , 1985, Psychophysiology.

[107]  Daniel Gopher,et al.  Workload: An examination of the concept. , 1986 .

[108]  G. Wilson,et al.  Steady state evoked responses: correlations with human cognition. , 1986, Psychophysiology.

[109]  E. Donchin,et al.  Cognitive Psychophysiology and Human Information Processing , 1986 .

[110]  Arthur F. Kramer,et al.  Principles of signal acquisition and analysis , 1986 .

[111]  J. Furedy,et al.  Beyond Heart Rate in the Cardiac Psychophysiological Assessment of Mental Effort: The T-Wave Amplitude Component of the Electrocardiogram , 1987, Human factors.

[112]  Emanuel Donchin,et al.  Definition, Identification, and Reliability of Measurement of the P300 Component of the Event-Related Brain Potential , 1987 .

[113]  R Goldstein,et al.  Effects of Information-Processing Demands on Physiological Response Patterns , 1987, Human factors.

[114]  E. Sirevaag,et al.  A Psychophysiological Assessment of Operator Workload During Simulated Flight Missions , 1987, Human factors.

[115]  J. Beatty,et al.  Contrasting effects of response uncertainty on the task-evoked pupillary response and reaction time. , 1987, Psychophysiology.

[116]  Glenn F. Wilson,et al.  Physiological Data Used to Measure Pilot Workload in Actual Flight and Simulator Conditions , 1987 .

[117]  E. Donchin,et al.  Psychophysiology : systems, processes, and applications , 1987 .

[118]  D. Ruchkin,et al.  Event-related potential processing negativities related to workload. , 1987, Electroencephalography and clinical neurophysiology. Supplement.

[119]  J. Rohrbaugh,et al.  Current trends in event-related potential research , 1987 .

[120]  D. Siddle,et al.  Stimulus omission and dishabituation of the electrodermal orienting response: the allocation of processing resources. , 1987, Psychophysiology.

[121]  C. E. Englund,et al.  Unified Tri-Service Cognitive Performance Assessment Battery (UTC-PAB). 1. Design and Specification of the Battery , 1987 .

[122]  K. G. Wilson Electrodermal lability and simple reaction time , 1987, Biological Psychology.

[123]  J Aasman,et al.  Operator Effort and the Measurement of Heart-Rate Variability , 1987, Human factors.

[124]  K. J. Vicente,et al.  Spectral Analysis of Sinus Arrhythmia: A Measure of Mental Effort , 1987, Human factors.

[125]  E J Sirevaag,et al.  Effects of foveal task load on visual-spatial attention: event-related brain potentials and performance. , 1988, Psychophysiology.

[126]  R. Näätänen Implications of ERP data for psychological theories of attention , 1988, Biological Psychology.

[127]  G. Wilson,et al.  Measurement of Operator Workload with the Neuropsychological Workload Test Battery , 1988 .

[128]  Event-Related and Steady Potential Changes in the Brain Related to Workload during Tracking, , 1988 .

[129]  J. E. Lloyd,et al.  Electrodermal lability and dichotic listening. , 1988, Psychophysiology.

[130]  P. Ullsperger,et al.  The P300 component of the event-related brain potential and mental effort. , 1988, Ergonomics.

[131]  Nelson Morgan,et al.  Applications of neural-network (NN) signal processing in brain research , 1988, IEEE Trans. Acoust. Speech Signal Process..

[132]  M C Polson,et al.  Task-Sharing within and between Hemispheres: A Multiple-Resources Approach , 1988, Human factors.

[133]  Arthur F. Kramer,et al.  Assessing the development of automatic processing: An application of dual-task and event-related brain potential methodologies , 1988, Biological Psychology.

[134]  John R. Amell,et al.  Capacity Equivalence Curves: A Double Trade-Off Curve Method for Equating Task Performance , 1988, Human factors.

[135]  Ross Pigeau,et al.  The Effect of Endogenous Alpha on Hemispheric Asymmetries and the Relationship of Frontal Theta to Sustained Attention , 1988 .

[136]  J. C. Smith,et al.  Electroencephalographic Correlates of Pilot Performance: Simulation and In-Flight Studies , 1988 .

[137]  W. Wierwille Important Remaining Issues in Mental Workload Estimation , 1988 .

[138]  Glenn F. Wilson,et al.  Fighter Pilot Performance during Airborne and Simulator Missions: Physiological Comparisons, , 1988 .

[139]  W D Obrist,et al.  Effects of task difficulty on regional cerebral blood flow: relationships with anxiety and performance. , 1988, Psychophysiology.

[140]  C. Wickens,et al.  Dissociation of Performance and Subjective Measures of Workload , 1988 .

[141]  M. Posner,et al.  Localization of cognitive operations in the human brain. , 1988, Science.

[142]  E. Donchin,et al.  Talking off the top of your head: toward a mental prosthesis utilizing event-related brain potentials. , 1988, Electroencephalography and clinical neurophysiology.

[143]  J. Kenemans,et al.  Effects of task relevance on habituation of visual single-trial ERPs and the skin conductance orienting response. , 1988, International journal of psychophysiology : official journal of the International Organization of Psychophysiology.

[144]  Jans Aasman,et al.  Measuring mental fatigue in normal daily working routines. , 1988 .

[145]  M. Kinsbourne,et al.  Electrodermal lability predicts presentation rate effects and stimulant drug effects on paired associate learning in hyperactive children. , 1988, Psychophysiology.

[146]  J. Mäkelä,et al.  Magnetic responses of the human auditory cortex to noise/square wave transitions. , 1988, Electroencephalography and clinical neurophysiology.

[147]  K. G. Wilson,et al.  Electrodermal lability and visual information processing. , 1989, Psychophysiology.

[148]  R. Hari,et al.  Multi-SQUID recordings of human cerebral magnetic fields may give information about memory processes , 1989 .

[149]  E Donchin,et al.  Resource reciprocity: an event-related brain potentials analysis. , 1989, Acta psychologica.

[150]  M. Appelbaum,et al.  Psychometric methods. , 1989, Annual review of psychology.

[151]  R. Hari,et al.  Reactions of human auditory cortex to a change in tone duration , 1989, Hearing Research.

[152]  D. Siddle,et al.  Stimulus miscuing, electrodermal activity, and the allocation of processing resources. , 1989, Psychophysiology.

[153]  Kara D. Federmeier,et al.  Event-related brain potentials. , 1990 .

[154]  Randall L. Harris,et al.  Usefulness of heart measures in flight simulation , 1990 .

[155]  D. Strayer,et al.  Attentional Requirements of Automatic and Controlled Processing , 1990 .

[156]  Arthur F. Kramer,et al.  Real-time measurement of mental workload: A feasibility study , 1990 .

[157]  E. Hazlett,et al.  The relationship between skin conductance orienting and the allocation of processing resources. , 1991, Psychophysiology.