The risks of acute exposure to black carbon in Southern Europe: results from the MED-PARTICLES project

Objectives While several studies have reported associations of daily exposures to PM2.5 (particles less than 2.5 µm) with mortality, few studies have examined the impact of its constituents such as black carbon (BC), which is also a significant contributor to global climate change. Methods We assessed the association between daily concentrations of BC and total, cardiovascular and respiratory mortality in two southern Mediterranean cities. Daily averages of BC were collected for 2 years in Barcelona, Spain and Athens, Greece. We used case-crossover analysis and examined single and cumulative lags up to 3 days. Results We observed associations between BC and all mortality measures. For a 3-day moving average, cardiovascular mortality increased by 4.5% (95% CI 0.7 to 8.5) and 2.0% (95% CI 0 to 4.0) for an interquartile change in BC in Athens and Barcelona, respectively. Considerably higher effects for respiratory mortality and for those above age 65 were observed. In addition, BC exhibited much greater toxicity per microgram than generic PM2.5. Conclusions Our findings suggest that BC, derived in western industrialised nations primarily from diesel engines and biomass burning, poses a significant burden to public health, particularly in European cities with high-traffic density.

[1]  H. R. Anderson,et al.  Epidemiological time series studies of PM2.5 and daily mortality and hospital admissions: a systematic review and meta-analysis , 2014, Thorax.

[2]  Division on Earth.  Research priorities for airborne particulate matter , 2013 .

[3]  T. Holzer-Popp,et al.  Recommendations for reporting "black carbon" measurements , 2013 .

[4]  Roger D. Peng,et al.  Short-term Exposure to Particulate Matter Constituents and Mortality in a National Study of U.S. Urban Communities , 2013, Environmental health perspectives.

[5]  J. Schwartz,et al.  Long-term Exposure to Black Carbon and Carotid Intima-Media Thickness: The Normative Aging Study , 2013, Environmental health perspectives.

[6]  Giovanna Berti,et al.  Short-term Associations between Fine and Coarse Particulate Matter and Hospitalizations in Southern Europe: Results from the MED-PARTICLES Project , 2013, Environmental health perspectives.

[7]  B. DeAngelo,et al.  Bounding the role of black carbon in the climate system: A scientific assessment , 2013 .

[8]  M. Stafoggia,et al.  Associations between Fine and Coarse Particles and Mortality in Mediterranean Cities: Results from the MED-PARTICLES Project , 2013, Environmental health perspectives.

[9]  Alan D. Lopez,et al.  A comparative risk assessment of burden of disease and injury attributable to 67 risk factors and risk factor clusters in 21 regions, 1990–2010: a systematic analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study 2010 , 2012, The Lancet.

[10]  R. Bahadur,et al.  Black carbon and the regional climate of California , 2013 .

[11]  B. Festy.  Review of evidence on health aspects of air pollution – REVIHAAP Project. Technical Report. World Health Organization Regional Office for Europe 2013 , 2013 .

[12]  J. Schwartz,et al.  Modeling the association between particle constituents of air pollution and health outcomes. , 2012, American journal of epidemiology.

[13]  Flemming R. Cassee,et al.  The biological effects of subacute inhalation of diesel exhaust following addition of cerium oxide nanoparticles in atherosclerosis-prone mice , 2012, Environmental research.

[14]  Fulvio Amato,et al.  The Effects of Particulate Matter Sources on Daily Mortality: A Case-Crossover Study of Barcelona, Spain , 2011, Environmental health perspectives.

[15]  H. R. Anderson,et al.  Black Carbon as an Additional Indicator of the Adverse Health Effects of Airborne Particles Compared with PM10 and PM2.5 , 2011, Environmental health perspectives.

[16]  R. Harrison,et al.  New considerations for PM, Black Carbon and particle number concentration for air quality monitoring across different European cities , 2011 .

[17]  J. Kaufman,et al.  Changes in atherosclerotic plaques induced by inhalation of diesel exhaust. , 2011, Atherosclerosis.

[18]  Giovanna Berti,et al.  Short-Term Effects of Nitrogen Dioxide on Mortality and Susceptibility Factors in 10 Italian Cities: The EpiAir Study , 2011, Environmental health perspectives.

[19]  Christoffer Boman,et al.  Particle Traps Prevent Adverse Vascular and Prothrombotic Effects of Diesel Engine Exhaust Inhalation in Men , 2011, Circulation.

[20]  Daniel Krewski,et al.  Public health benefits of strategies to reduce greenhouse-gas emissions: health implications of short-lived greenhouse pollutants , 2009, The Lancet.

[21]  Joel Schwartz,et al.  Black Carbon Exposure, Oxidative Stress Genes, and Blood Pressure in a Repeated-Measures Study , 2009, Environmental health perspectives.

[22]  J. Schwartz,et al.  Particulate Air Pollution as a Risk Factor for ST-Segment Depression in Patients With Coronary Artery Disease , 2008, Circulation.

[23]  Scott L Zeger,et al.  An Approach to Checking Case-Crossover Analyses Based on Equivalence With Time-Series Methods , 2008, Epidemiology.

[24]  M. Schaap,et al.  On the variability of Black Smoke and carbonaceous aerosols in the Netherlands , 2007 .

[25]  J. Schwartz,et al.  Association between PM2.5 and all-cause and specific-cause mortality in 27 US communities , 2007, Journal of Exposure Science and Environmental Epidemiology.

[26]  Scott L Zeger,et al.  On the equivalence of case-crossover and time series methods in environmental epidemiology. , 2007, Biostatistics.

[27]  J Schwartz,et al.  Air pollution and inflammation in type 2 diabetes: a mechanism for susceptibility , 2006, Occupational and Environmental Medicine.

[28]  J. Schwartz,et al.  Air Pollution and ST-Segment Depression in Elderly Subjects , 2005, Environmental health perspectives.

[29]  Louise Marston,et al.  Meta-analysis of time series studies and panel studies of particulate matter (PM) and ozone (O3). Report of a WHO task group , 2004 .

[30]  A. Tobías,et al.  The EMECAM project: a multicentre study on air pollution and mortality in Spain: combined results for particulates and for sulfur dioxide , 2002, Occupational and environmental medicine.

[31]  Matti Jantunen,et al.  Comparison of black smoke and PM2.5 levels in indoor and outdoor environments of four European cities. , 2002, Environmental science & technology.

[32]  J Schwartz,et al.  Confounding and Effect Modification in the Short-Term Effects of Ambient Particles on Total Mortality: Results from 29 European Cities within the APHEA2 Project , 2001, Epidemiology.

[33]  R. Cary,et al.  Elemental Carbon-Based Method for Monitoring Occupational Exposures to Particulate Diesel Exhaust , 1996 .