Variability of chlorination by-product occurrence in water of indoor and outdoor swimming pools.

Swimming is one of the most popular aquatic activities. Just like natural water, public pool water may contain microbiological and chemical contaminants. The purpose of this study was to study the presence of chemical contaminants in swimming pools, in particular the presence of disinfection by-products (DBPs) such as trihalomethanes (THMs), haloacetic acids (HAAs) and inorganic chloramines (CAMi). Fifty-four outdoor and indoor swimming pools were investigated over a period of one year (monthly or bi-weekly sampling, according to the type of pool) for the occurrence of DBPs. The results showed that DBP levels in swimming pools were greater than DBP levels found in drinking water, especially for HAAs. Measured concentrations of THMs (97.9 vs 63.7 μg/L in average) and HAAs (807.6 vs 412.9 μg/L in average) were higher in outdoor pools, whereas measured concentrations of CAMi (0.1 vs 0.8 mg/L in average) were higher in indoor pools. Moreover, outdoor pools with heated water contained more DBPs than unheated pools. Finally, there was significant variability in tTHM, HAA9 and CAMi levels in pools supplied by the same municipal drinking water network, suggesting that individual pool characteristics (number of swimmers) and management strategies play a major role in DBP formation.

[1]  W. Thiemann,et al.  Distribution and balance of volatile halogenated hydrocarbons in the water and air of covered swimming pools using chlorine for water disinfection , 1981 .

[2]  M. Gallego,et al.  Assessment of exposure of workers and swimmers to trihalomethanes in an indoor swimming pool. , 2007, Environmental science & technology.

[3]  J. V. Dijk,et al.  Definition and quantification of initial anthropogenic pollutant release in swimming pools. , 2012, Water research.

[4]  M. Gallego,et al.  Alveolar air and urine analyses as biomarkers of exposure to trihalomethanes in an indoor swimming pool. , 2008, Environmental science & technology.

[5]  Alain LeBlanc,et al.  Evaluation of dermal and respiratory chloroform exposure in humans. , 1994 .

[6]  Jinkeun Kim,et al.  DBPs removal in GAC filter-adsorber. , 2008, Water research.

[7]  M. Benjamin,et al.  Effects of thermal treatment on halogenated disinfection by-products in drinking water. , 2001, Water research.

[8]  L. Boulet,et al.  The determinants of prevalence of health complaints among young competitive swimmers , 2006, International archives of occupational and environmental health.

[9]  N. Thacker,et al.  Factors Influencing Formation of Trihalomethanes in Swimming Pool Water , 2003, Bulletin of environmental contamination and toxicology.

[10]  Amer Kanan.  OCCURRENCE AND FORMATION OF DISINFECTION BY-PRODUCTS IN INDOOR SWIMMING POOLS WATER , 2010 .

[11]  E Righi,et al.  Occupational exposure to trihalomethanes in indoor swimming pools. , 2001, The Science of the total environment.

[12]  E. R. Blatchley,et al.  Disinfection by-product dynamics in a chlorinated, indoor swimming pool under conditions of heavy use: national swimming competition. , 2011, Water research.

[13]  F. Frimmel,et al.  Trichloramine in swimming pools--formation and mass transfer. , 2011, Water research.

[14]  K. Cammann,et al.  Trihalomethane concentrations in swimmers' and bath attendants' blood and urine after swimming or working in indoor swimming pools. , 1995, Archives of environmental health.

[15]  G. Wallace,et al.  Determination of trace amounts of chloramines by liquid chromatographic separation and amperometric detection , 1990 .

[16]  G. Sciarra,et al.  Disinfection of swimming pools with chlorine and derivatives: formation of organochlorinated and organobrominated compounds and exposure of pool personnel and swimmers. , 2010 .

[17]  H. Andersen,et al.  Particles in swimming pool filters--does pH determine the DBP formation? , 2012, Chemosphere.

[18]  Soohyung Lee,et al.  Formation of disinfection by-products in chlorinated swimming pool water. , 2002, Chemosphere.

[19]  Lothar Erdinger,et al.  Pathways of trihalomethane uptake in swimming pools. , 2004, International journal of hygiene and environmental health.

[20]  G. Aggazzotti,et al.  Survey of volatile halogenated organics (VHO) in Italy: Levels of VHO in drinking waters, surface waters and swimming pools , 1986 .

[21]  A. Alford-Stevens,et al.  MEASUREMENT OF PURGEABLE ORGANIC COMPOUNDS IN WATER BY CAPILLARY COLUMN GAS CHROMATOGRAPHY/MASS SPECTROMETRY , 1992 .

[22]  P. Chambon,et al.  Survey of trihalomethane levels in Rhône-Alps water supplies. Estimates on the formation of chloroform in wastewater treatment plants and swimming pools , 1983 .

[23]  Xiangru Zhang,et al.  Decomposition of trihaloacetic acids and formation of the corresponding trihalomethanes in drinking water. , 2002, Water research.

[24]  M. Plewa,et al.  Genotoxicity of water concentrates from recreational pools after various disinfection methods. , 2010, Environmental science & technology.

[25]  D. DeMarini,et al.  Occurrence, genotoxicity, and carcinogenicity of regulated and emerging disinfection by-products in drinking water: a review and roadmap for research. , 2007, Mutation research.

[26]  E. R. Blatchley,et al.  UV photodegradation of inorganic chloramines. , 2009, Environmental science & technology.

[27]  Sylviane Carbonnelle.  Les risques sanitaires des produits dérivés de la chloration des eaux de bassins de natation , 2003 .

[28]  H. Ueno,et al.  Disinfection by-products in the chlorination of organic nitrogen compounds: by-products from kynurenine. , 1996, Chemosphere.

[29]  G. Aggazzotti,et al.  Blood and breath analyses as biological indicators of exposure to trihalomethanes in indoor swimming pools. , 1998, The Science of the total environment.

[30]  M J Nieuwenhuijsen,et al.  Distribution and determinants of trihalomethane concentrations in indoor swimming pools , 2002, Occupational and environmental medicine.

[31]  S. Judd,et al.  Trihalomethane formation during swimming pool water disinfection using hypobromous and hypochlorous acids , 1995 .

[32]  G. Aggazzotti,et al.  Plasma chloroform concentrations in swimmers using indoor swimming pools. , 1990, Archives of environmental health.

[33]  O. Thomas,et al.  Determinants of chlorination by-products in indoor swimming pools. , 2011, International journal of hygiene and environmental health.

[34]  F. Frimmel,et al.  Swimming pool water--fractionation and genotoxicological characterization of organic constituents. , 2005, Water research.

[35]  J D Pleil,et al.  Alveolar breath sampling and analysis to assess trihalomethane exposures during competitive swimming training. , 1997, Environmental health perspectives.

[36]  T. Albanis,et al.  Aqueous photolysis of the sunscreen agent octyl-dimethyl-p-aminobenzoic acid. Formation of disinfection byproducts in chlorinated swimming pool water. , 2003, Journal of chromatography. A.

[37]  E Righi,et al.  Environmental and biological monitoring of chloroform in indoor swimming pools. , 1995, Journal of chromatography. A.

[38]  Rehan Sadiq,et al.  Trihalomethane exposures in indoor swimming pools: a level III fugacity model. , 2011, Water research.

[39]  Xin Yang,et al.  THM, HAA and CNCl formation from UV irradiation and chlor(am)ination of selected organic waters. , 2006, Water research.

[40]  C. Catto,et al.  Occurrence and Spatial and Temporal Variations of Disinfection By-Products in the Water and Air of Two Indoor Swimming Pools , 2012, International journal of environmental research and public health.

[41]  A. P. Black,et al.  The disinfection of swimming pool water. II. A field study of the disinfection of public swimming pools. , 1970, American journal of public health and the nation's health.

[42]  M. Gallego,et al.  Haloacetic acids in swimming pools: swimmer and worker exposure. , 2011, Environmental science & technology.

[43]  Rhoda G. M. Wang.  Water Contamination and Health: Integration of Exposure Assessment, Toxicology, and Risk Assessment , 1994 .

[44]  G. Aggazzotti,et al.  Chloroform in alveolar air of individuals attending indoor swimming pools. , 1993, Archives of environmental health.

[45]  A. E. Greenberg,et al.  Standard methods for the examination of water and wastewater : supplement to the sixteenth edition , 1988 .

[46]  R Tardif,et al.  Evaluation of the health risk associated with exposure to chloroform in indoor swimming pools. , 2000, Journal of toxicology and environmental health. Part A.

[47]  T. Karanfil,et al.  Formation of disinfection by-products in indoor swimming pool water: the contribution from filling water natural organic matter and swimmer body fluids. , 2011, Water research.

[48]  J. Beech,et al.  Nitrates, chlorates and trihalomethanes in swimming pool water. , 1980, American journal of public health.

[49]  G. Aggazzotti,et al.  Headspace gas chromatographic analysis for determining low levels of chloroform in human plasma. , 1987, Journal of chromatography.

[50]  P. Brimblecombe,et al.  Photodegradation of haloacetic acids in water. , 2004, Chemosphere.