Vascular remodeling in the circulations of the lung.

The lung is unique in its double sources of perfusion from the pulmonary and systemic circulations. One striking difference between the two circulations is the capacity for angiogenesis. The bronchial circulation has a capacity that seems quite similar to all systemic arteries, whereas the pulmonary circulation seems relatively inert in this regard. Extra-alveolar pulmonary arteries can grow somewhat in length, and septal capillaries seem to have the capability of reforming, but these processes do not seem to occur with nearly the same intensity associated with the bronchial arteries. In this review, we emphasize these differences between the two circulations of the lung, anticipating that future research will allow more focused probing into the molecular signaling that regulates the novel mechanistic and pathological pathways of each.

[1]  P. Hirth,et al.  Inhibition of VEGF receptors causes lung cell apoptosis and emphysema. , 2000, The Journal of clinical investigation.

[2]  J. Wilson,et al.  Increased vascularity of the bronchial mucosa in mild asthma. , 1997, American journal of respiratory and critical care medicine.

[3]  Alison A. Hislop,et al.  Airway and blood vessel interaction during lung development , 2002, Journal of anatomy.

[4]  Frank Keller,et al.  Nonbronchial systemic collateral arteries: significance in percutaneous embolotherapy for hemoptysis. , 1987, Radiology.

[5]  D. McDonald,et al.  Microvascular Remodelling In Chronic Airway Inflammation In Mice , 2000, Clinical and experimental pharmacology & physiology.

[6]  R. Riley,et al.  Effect of inflation of the lung on different parts of pulmonary vascular bed. , 1961, Journal of applied physiology.

[7]  C. Carrington,et al.  Vascular patterns in primary and secondary pulmonary tumors in the dog. , 1969, The American journal of pathology.

[8]  R. Pimmel,et al.  The effects of early pneumonectomy on the remaining pulmonary parenchyma. , 1979, Surgery.

[9]  R. Tuder,et al.  The pathobiological mechanisms of emphysema models: what do they have in common? , 2003, Pulmonary pharmacology & therapeutics.

[10]  P. Paré,et al.  Small airways dimensions in asthma and in chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. , 1993, The American review of respiratory disease.

[11]  L. North,et al.  Bronchial and intercostal arteriography in non-neoplastic pulmonary disease. , 1969, The American journal of roentgenology, radium therapy, and nuclear medicine.

[12]  P. Paré,et al.  Response of the bronchial circulation to acute hypoxemia and hypercarbia in the dog. , 1983, Journal of applied physiology: respiratory, environmental and exercise physiology.

[13]  P. Carmeliet.  Mechanisms of angiogenesis and arteriogenesis , 2000, Nature Medicine.

[14]  F. Shepherd,et al.  Angiogenesis inhibitors under study for the treatment of lung cancer. , 2003, Lung cancer.

[15]  C. Hsia,et al.  Dysanaptic growth of conducting airways after pneumonectomy assessed by CT scan. , 2002, Journal of applied physiology.

[16]  E. Weibel,et al.  Compensatory lung growth occurs in adult dogs after right pneumonectomy. , 1994, The Journal of clinical investigation.

[17]  M. Egerbacher,et al.  Pulmonary venous sphincters in cattle , 1996, The Anatomical Record.

[18]  E A Zerhouni,et al.  Blood supply of pulmonary metastases , 1987, Journal of thoracic imaging.

[19]  P. Auld,et al.  Effects of Pneumonectomy on Pulmonary Circulation in Adult and Young Animals , 1961, Circulation research.

[20]  D. McDonald,et al.  Tissue macrophages associated with angiogenesis in chronic airway inflammation in rats. , 1999, American journal of respiratory cell and molecular biology.

[21]  M. Iannettoni,et al.  Epithelial-neutrophil activating peptide (ENA-78) is an important angiogenic factor in non-small cell lung cancer. , 1998, The Journal of clinical investigation.

[22]  O. Ohtani.  Microvasculature of the rat lung as revealed by scanning electron microscopy of corrosion casts. , 1980, Scanning electron microscopy.

[23]  D. Heistad,et al.  Blood Flow through Vasa Vasorum of Coronary Arteries in Atherosclerotic Monkeys , 1986, Arteriosclerosis.

[24]  W. Mitzner,et al.  Angiogenesis in the mouse lung. , 2000, The American journal of pathology.

[25]  E. Wagner,et al.  Role of the bronchial circulation in ischemia-reperfusion lung injury. , 1994, Journal of applied physiology.

[26]  E. Boyden.  The time lag in the development of bronchial arteries , 1970, The Anatomical record.

[27]  H. T. Karsner,et al.  STUDIES IN INFARCTION : III. THE CIRCULATION IN EXPERIMENTAL PULMONARY EMBOLISM. , 1913 .

[28]  E. Hoffman,et al.  Calorie-related rapid onset of alveolar loss, regeneration, and changes in mouse lung gene expression. , 2004, American journal of physiology. Lung cellular and molecular physiology.

[29]  R. Michel,et al.  Increased resistance in postobstructive pulmonary vasculopathy: structure-function relationships. , 1991, Journal of applied physiology.

[30]  M. Burdick,et al.  Depletion of CXCR2 Inhibits Tumor Growth and Angiogenesis in a Murine Model of Lung Cancer1 , 2004, The Journal of Immunology.

[31]  E. Congdon.  Transformation of the aortic-arch system during the development of the human embryo , 1922 .

[32]  M. Burdick,et al.  Inhibition of interleukin-8 reduces tumorigenesis of human non-small cell lung cancer in SCID mice. , 1996, The Journal of clinical investigation.

[33]  M. Frid,et al.  Hypoxia-induced pulmonary artery adventitial remodeling and neovascularization: contribution of progenitor cells. , 2004, American journal of physiology. Lung cellular and molecular physiology.

[34]  D. Demello,et al.  Embryonic and Early Fetal Development of Human Lung Vasculature and Its Functional Implications , 2000, Pediatric and developmental pathology : the official journal of the Society for Pediatric Pathology and the Paediatric Pathology Society.

[35]  P. Burri,et al.  Structural analysis of fetal rat lung development , 1992, The Anatomical record.

[36]  L. Reid,et al.  Fetal and childhood development of the intrapulmonary veins in man—branching pattern and structure , 1973, Thorax.

[37]  R. Brown,et al.  Site of functional bronchopulmonary anastomoses in sheep , 1999, The Anatomical record.

[38]  D. McDonald,et al.  Angiogenesis in mice with chronic airway inflammation: strain-dependent differences. , 1998, The American journal of pathology.

[39]  D. Schraufnagel,et al.  Sphincters in pulmonary veins. An anatomic study in rats. , 1990, The American review of respiratory disease.

[40]  K. Müller,et al.  Bronchial arteries in various stages of bronchogenic carcinoma. , 1978, Pathology, research and practice.

[41]  K. Stenmark,et al.  Lung vascular development: breathing new life into an old problem. , 2003, American journal of respiratory cell and molecular biology.

[42]  N. Charan,et al.  Angiogenesis in bronchial circulatory system after unilateral pulmonary artery obstruction. , 1997, Journal of applied physiology.

[43]  J. Layne.  Postnatal development and growth of Peromyscus floridanus. , 1966, Growth.

[44]  N. Hayat,et al.  Comparison of bronchopulmonary collaterals and collateral blood flow in patients with chronic thromboembolic and primary pulmonary hypertension. , 1997, Heart.

[45]  W. Massion,et al.  PHYSIOLOGICAL EFFECTS OF LUNG RESECTION IN ADULT AND PUPPY DOGS. , 1964, The Journal of thoracic and cardiovascular surgery.

[46]  L. Reid,et al.  Intra-pulmonary arterial development during fetal life-branching pattern and structure. , 1972, Journal of anatomy.

[47]  R. Martin,et al.  Evaluation of blood vessels and edema in the airways of asthma patients: regulation with clarithromycin treatment. , 2001, Chest.

[48]  R. Dhand,et al.  Gross and subgross anatomy of bronchial circulation in sheep. , 1984, Journal of applied physiology: respiratory, environmental and exercise physiology.

[49]  E. Hoffman,et al.  Erratum: Calorie-related rapid onset of alveolar loss, regeneration, and changes in mouse lung gene expression (American Journal of Physiology - Lung Cellular and Molecular Physiology (May 2004) 30 (L896-L906)) , 2004 .

[50]  W. Kassouf,et al.  Altered reactivity of pulmonary vessels in postobstructive pulmonary vasculopathy. , 2000, Journal of applied physiology.

[51]  S. Lakshminarayan,et al.  The bronchial circulation. Small, but a vital attribute of the lung. , 1987, The American review of respiratory disease.

[52]  J. Wirman,et al.  Emphysema-like changes in the lungs of starved rats. , 2015, The American review of respiratory disease.

[53]  M. Burdick,et al.  ENA-78 is an important angiogenic factor in idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis. , 2001, American journal of respiratory and critical care medicine.

[54]  W. Mitzner,et al.  Effect of hypoxia on bronchial circulation. , 1988, Journal of applied physiology.

[55]  G. Murray,et al.  Structural changes in the canine lung and pulmonary arteries after pneumonectomy. , 1982, Journal of applied physiology: respiratory, environmental and exercise physiology.

[56]  W. Mitzner,et al.  Identification of genes promoting angiogenesis in mouse lung by transcriptional profiling. , 2003, American journal of respiratory cell and molecular biology.

[57]  E. Weibel,et al.  Early Stages in the Development of Collateral Circulation to the Lung in the Rat , 1960, Circulation research.

[58]  H. Arnqvist,et al.  Insulin-like growth factor I receptors are more abundant than insulin receptors in human micro- and macrovascular endothelial cells. , 2004, American journal of physiology. Endocrinology and metabolism.

[59]  N. Charan,et al.  Anatomy of the normal bronchial circulatory system in humans and animals , 1992 .

[60]  D. Schraufnagel,et al.  Human alveolar capillaries undergo angiogenesis in pulmonary veno-occlusive disease. , 1996, The European respiratory journal.

[61]  E. Weibel,et al.  Structural changes underlying compensatory increase of diffusing capacity after left pneumonectomy in adult dogs. , 1993, The Journal of clinical investigation.

[62]  H Sahebjami,et al.  Effects of starvation and refeeding on lung mechanics and morphometry. , 2015, The American review of respiratory disease.

[63]  R. Whyte,et al.  The CXC chemokines, IL-8 and IP-10, regulate angiogenic activity in idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis. , 1997, Journal of immunology.

[64]  E. Bacha,et al.  Pulmonary thromboendarterectomy for chronic thromboembolic obstruction of the pulmonary artery in piglets. , 1999, The Journal of thoracic and cardiovascular surgery.