Remediation of soils contaminated with polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs).

Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) are carcinogenic micropollutants which are resistant to environmental degradation due to their highly hydrophobic nature. Concerns over their adverse health effects have resulted in extensive studies on the remediation of soils contaminated with PAHs. This paper aims to provide a review of the remediation technologies specifically for PAH-contaminated soils. The technologies discussed here include solvent extraction, bioremediation, phytoremediation, chemical oxidation, photocatalytic degradation, electrokinetic remediation, thermal treatment and integrated remediation technologies. For each of these, the theories are discussed in conjunction with comparative evaluation of studies reported in the specialised literature.

[1]  Glenn A. Burks,et al.  Thermally Enhanced Vapor Extraction for Removing PAHs from LampBlack-Contaminated Soil , 2001 .

[2]  Peijun Li,et al.  Removal of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons from manufactured gas plant-contaminated soils using sunflower oil: laboratory column experiments. , 2006, Chemosphere.

[3]  T. Cajthaml,et al.  Bioavailability modification and fungal biodegradation of PAHs in aged industrial soils , 2007 .

[4]  S. Lundstedt,et al.  Transformation of PAHs during ethanol-Fenton treatment of an aged gasworks' soil. , 2006, Chemosphere.

[5]  R. Seifert,et al.  Rapid screening of PAH-residues in bioremediated soils , 1995 .

[6]  R. Watts,et al.  A foundation for the risk-based treatment of gasoline-contaminated soils using modified Fenton's reactions. , 2000, Journal of hazardous materials.

[7]  L. Petruzzelli,et al.  Anaerobic PAH degradation in soil by a mixed bacterial consortium under denitrifying conditions. , 2005, Chemosphere.

[8]  S. Hawthorne,et al.  PAH release during water desorption, supercritical carbon dioxide extraction, and field bioremediation. , 2001, Environmental science & technology.

[9]  C. Ahn,et al.  Soil washing using various nonionic surfactants and their recovery by selective adsorption with activated carbon. , 2008, Journal of hazardous materials.

[10]  M. Riekkola,et al.  Destruction of PAHS from soil by using pressurized hot water extraction coupled with supercritical water oxidation. , 2003, Waste management.

[11]  E. Veignie,et al.  Biodegradation of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) by Cladosporium sphaerospermum isolated from an aged PAH contaminated soil. , 2004, FEMS microbiology ecology.

[12]  Comparison of Fenton's Reagent and Ozone Oxidation of Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons in Aged Contaminated Soils (7 pp) , 2006 .

[13]  R. Meagher,et al.  Phytoremediation of toxic elemental and organic pollutants. , 2000, Current opinion in plant biology.

[14]  B. Antízar-Ladislao,et al.  Bioremediation of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH) in an aged coal-tar-contaminated soil using different in-vessel composting approaches. , 2006, Journal of hazardous materials.

[15]  Hiroshi Habe,et al.  Genetics of Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbon Metabolism in Diverse Aerobic Bacteria , 2003, Bioscience, biotechnology, and biochemistry.

[16]  I. Singleton,et al.  The use of ozone in the remediation of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon contaminated soil. , 2006, Chemosphere.

[17]  Tuula Tuhkanen,et al.  Integrated treatment of PAH contaminated soil by soil washing, ozonation and biological treatment. , 2006, Journal of hazardous materials.

[18]  R. Rota,et al.  Biodegradation combined with ozone for the remediation of contaminated soils , 2007 .

[19]  B. W. Bogan,et al.  Inclusion of vegetable oils in Fenton's chemistry for remediation of PAH-contaminated soils. , 2003, Chemosphere.

[20]  J. Simal-Gándara,et al.  Strategies for the extraction of free and bound polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in run-off waters rich in organic matter , 2004 .

[21]  T. Cajthaml,et al.  Compost-Mediated Removal of Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons from Contaminated Soil , 2003, Archives of environmental contamination and toxicology.

[22]  A. Rababah,et al.  Treatment system for solid matrix contaminated with fluoranthene. II--Recirculating photodegradation technique. , 2002, Chemosphere.

[23]  Blanca Antizar-Ladislao,et al.  The influence of different temperature programmes on the bioremediation of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in a coal-tar contaminated soil by in-vessel composting. , 2007, Journal of hazardous materials.

[24]  S. Harayama.  Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon bioremediation design. , 1997, Current opinion in biotechnology.

[25]  P. Isosaari,et al.  Integration of electrokinetics and chemical oxidation for the remediation of creosote-contaminated clay. , 2007, Journal of hazardous materials.

[26]  Qasim Chaudhry,et al.  Utilising the Synergy between Plants and Rhizosphere Microorganisms to Enhance Breakdown of Organic Pollutants in the Environment (15 pp) , 2005, Environmental science and pollution research international.

[27]  N. Kulik,et al.  Degradation of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons by combined chemical pre-oxidation and bioremediation in creosote contaminated soil. , 2006, Journal of environmental management.

[28]  J. Martins,et al.  Comparison of supercritical fluid extraction (SFE), Soxhlet and shaking methods for pendimethalin extraction from soils : effect of soil properties and water content , 1998 .

[29]  K. L. Lau,et al.  Use of spent mushroom compost to bioremediate PAH-contaminated samples. , 2003, Chemosphere.

[30]  R. Holzer,et al.  Comparison of different drying, extraction and detection techniques for the determination of priority polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in background contaminated soil samples , 1999 .

[31]  Jing-liang Li,et al.  Solubilization of model polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons by nonionic surfactants , 2002 .

[32]  B. Antízar-Ladislao,et al.  Laboratory studies of the remediation of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon contaminated soil by in-vessel composting. , 2005, Waste management.

[33]  Peijun Li,et al.  Photocatalytic degradation of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons on soil surfaces using TiO(2) under UV light. , 2008, Journal of hazardous materials.

[34]  T. Macek,et al.  The effect of ryegrass (Lolium perenne) on decrease of PAH content in long term contaminated soil. , 2008, Chemosphere.

[35]  A. Singh,et al.  Vegetable oil as a contaminated soil remediation amendment: application of peanut oil for extraction of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons from soil , 2004 .

[36]  C. Miège,et al.  Optimization, validation and comparison of various extraction techniques for the trace determination of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in sewage sludges by liquid chromatography coupled to diode-array and fluorescence detection. , 2003, Journal of chromatography. A.

[37]  Peijun Li,et al.  Activated carbon adsorption of PAHs from vegetable oil used in soil remediation. , 2007, Journal of hazardous materials.

[38]  Lizhong Zhu,et al.  Efficiency of surfactant-enhanced desorption for contaminated soils depending on the component characteristics of soil-surfactant--PAHs system. , 2007, Environmental pollution.

[39]  Surendra Kumar,et al.  Enhanced electrokinetic remediation of contaminated manufactured gas plant soil , 2005 .

[40]  A. Akgerman.  Supercritical fluid extraction of contaminants from environmental matrices , 1993 .

[41]  K. Hanna,et al.  Removal of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons from aged-contaminated soil using cyclodextrins: experimental study. , 2006, Environmental pollution.

[42]  B. Chang,et al.  Anaerobic biodegradation of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon in soil. , 2002, Chemosphere.

[43]  M. Alexander,et al.  Plant-promoted pyrene degradation in soil. , 2000, Chemosphere.

[44]  T. Cajthaml,et al.  Bioremediation of PAH-contaminated soil by composting: A case study , 2008, Folia Microbiologica.

[45]  M. Vidali.  Bioremediation. An overview , 2001 .

[46]  M. Nyman,et al.  Effective treatment of PAH contaminated Superfund site soil with the peroxy-acid process. , 2007, Journal of hazardous materials.

[47]  Gianni Andreottola,et al.  Remediation of PAH-contaminated sediments by chemical oxidation. , 2008, Journal of hazardous materials.

[48]  A. Rababah,et al.  Treatment system for solid matrix contaminated with fluoranthene. I--Modified extraction technique. , 2002, Chemosphere.

[49]  M. A. Sanromán,et al.  Combined treatment of PAHs contaminated soils using the sequence extraction with surfactant-electrochemical degradation. , 2008, Chemosphere.

[50]  K C Cheung,et al.  Pollutants in Hong Kong soils: polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons. , 2007, Chemosphere.

[51]  R. Bartha,et al.  Effect of bioremediation on polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon residues in soil , 1990 .

[52]  V. Camel,et al.  Removal of sorbed polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons from soil, sludge and sediment samples using the Fenton's reagent process. , 2005, Chemosphere.

[53]  S. Hawthorne,et al.  Comparing PAH availability from manufactured gas plant soils and sediments with chemical and biological tests. 1. PAH release during water desorption and supercritical carbon dioxide extraction. , 2002, Environmental science & technology.

[54]  Perry L. McCarty,et al.  Engineering concepts for in situ bioremediation , 1991 .

[55]  J. Kukor,et al.  Enhanced degradation of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons by biodegradation combined with a modified Fenton reaction. , 2001, Chemosphere.

[56]  J. Simal-Gándara,et al.  Sorption of PAHs to Colloid Dispersions of Humic Substances in Water , 2007, Bulletin of environmental contamination and toxicology.

[57]  G. Nelson,et al.  Use of solvents to enhance PAH biodegradation of coal tar-contaminated soils. , 2001, Water research.

[58]  M. McBride.  Environmental Chemistry of Soils , 1994 .

[59]  Jacek S. Miller,et al.  Ozonation of Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons in Water Solution , 2004 .

[60]  M. Aresta,et al.  Supercritical fluid extraction of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons from marine sediments and soil samples. , 2004, Chemosphere.

[61]  S. Hawthorne,et al.  Correlating selective supercritical fluid extraction with bioremediation behavior of PAHs in a field treatment plot. , 2000 .

[62]  M. Suidan,et al.  Removal of PAHs from highly contaminated soils found at prior manufactured gas operations. , 2000, Journal of hazardous materials.

[63]  Qi Li,et al.  Biodegradation of aged polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) by microbial consortia in soil and slurry phases. , 2008, Journal of hazardous materials.

[64]  P. Schröder,et al.  Ex-situ process for treating PAH-contaminated soil with Phanerochaete chrysosporium , 1997 .

[65]  L. Newman,et al.  Phytodegradation of organic compounds. , 2004, Current opinion in biotechnology.

[66]  Lawrence L. Tavlarides,et al.  Supercritical extraction of contaminants from soils and sediments , 2006 .

[67]  M. Tysklind,et al.  Degradation of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in contaminated soils by Fenton's reagent: a multivariate evaluation of the importance of soil characteristics and PAH properties. , 2007, Journal of hazardous materials.

[68]  Peijun Li,et al.  Influence of soil moisture on sunflower oil extraction of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons from a manufactured gas plant soil. , 2005, The Science of the total environment.

[69]  O. Singh,et al.  Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons: environmental pollution and bioremediation. , 2002, Trends in biotechnology.

[70]  Susan J. Masten,et al.  Efficacy of in-situ for the remediation of PAH contaminated soils , 1997 .

[71]  L. Barton,et al.  Permanganate oxidation of sorbed polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons. , 2003, Waste management.

[72]  S. Vesper,et al.  Polynuclear aromatic hydrocarbon (PAH) release from soil during treatment with Fenton's reagent , 1995 .

[73]  A. P. Schwab,et al.  Assessment of contaminant lability during phytoremediation of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon impacted soil. , 2005, Environmental pollution.

[74]  Peijun Li,et al.  Dissolution and removal of PAHs from a contaminated soil using sunflower oil. , 2005, Chemosphere.

[75]  Boris Jansen,et al.  Thermodynamic and kinetic models for the extraction of essential oil from savory and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons from soil with hot (subcritical) water and supercritical CO2. , 2002, Journal of chromatography. A.

[76]  A. P. Schwab,et al.  Lability of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in the rhizosphere. , 2008, Chemosphere.

[77]  C. Delerue-Matos,et al.  Use of solvent extraction to remediate soils contaminated with hydrocarbons. , 2005, Journal of hazardous materials.

[78]  K. Mueller,et al.  PAH dissipation in spiked soil: impacts of bioavailability, microbial activity, and trees. , 2006, Chemosphere.

[79]  Sanghun Lee,et al.  Degradation of phenanthrene and pyrene in rhizosphere of grasses and legumes. , 2008, Journal of hazardous materials.

[80]  Catherine N. Mulligan,et al.  Surfactant-enhanced remediation of contaminated soil: a review , 2001 .

[81]  J. Immerzeel,et al.  Earthworm and food interactions on bioaccumulation and disappearance in soil of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons: studies on phenanthrene and fluoranthene. , 1995, Ecotoxicology and environmental safety.

[82]  J. Simal-Gándara,et al.  Evolution of the concentrations of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in burnt woodland soils. , 2006, Environmental science & technology.

[83]  K. Reddy,et al.  Simultaneous removal of organic compounds and heavy metals from soils by electrokinetic remediation with a modified cyclodextrin. , 2006, Chemosphere.

[84]  P. White,et al.  Mutagens in contaminated soil: a review. , 2004, Mutation research.

[85]  B. W. Bogan,et al.  Effect of sequestration on PAH degradability with Fenton's reagent: roles of total organic carbon, humin, and soil porosity. , 2003, Journal of hazardous materials.

[86]  G. Reimer,et al.  Comparison of supercritical fluid extraction and Soxhlet extraction for the analysis of native polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in soils , 1995 .

[87]  B. Glick,et al.  A multi-process phytoremediation system for removal of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons from contaminated soils. , 2004, Environmental pollution.

[88]  H. Duncan,et al.  Effects of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons on germination and subsequent growth of grasses and legumes in freshly contaminated soil and soil with aged PAHs residues. , 2006, Environmental pollution.

[89]  F. Rivas,et al.  Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons sorbed on soils: a short review of chemical oxidation based treatments. , 2006, Journal of hazardous materials.

[90]  S. Hawthorne,et al.  Pilot-scale subcritical water remediation of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon- and pesticide-contaminated soil. , 2000 .

[91]  D. Connell.  Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons (PAHs) , 2005 .

[92]  J. Simal-Gándara,et al.  Procedure to measure the level of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in wood ashes used as fertilizer in agroforestry soils and their transfer from ashes to water. , 2004, Journal of agricultural and food chemistry.

[93]  M. T. Moreira,et al.  Biodegradation of dibenzothiophene, fluoranthene, pyrene and chrysene in a soil slurry reactor by the white-rot fungus Bjerkandera sp. BOS55 , 2007 .

[94]  A. Akgerman,et al.  Hot water extraction with in situ wet oxidation: kinetics of PAHs removal from soil. , 2006, Journal of hazardous materials.

[95]  Krishna R Reddy,et al.  Effect of pH control at the anode for the electrokinetic removal of phenanthrene from kaolin soil. , 2003, Chemosphere.

[96]  S. R. Wild,et al.  Polynuclear aromatic hydrocarbons in the United Kingdom environment: a preliminary source inventory and budget. , 1995, Environmental pollution.

[97]  M. Riekkola,et al.  Pressurized hot water extraction coupled with supercritical water oxidation in remediation of sand and soil containing PAHs , 2002 .

[98]  M. Gealt,et al.  Biodegradation and Bioremediation. , 1996 .

[99]  Jeffrey H. Harwell,et al.  Surfactant selection for enhancing ex situ soil washing , 1999 .