Feeling in control of your footsteps: Conscious gait monitoring and the auditory consequences of footsteps

A fundamental aspect of the “I” of conscious experience is that the self is experienced as a single coherent representation of the entire, spatially situated body. The purpose of the present study was to investigate agency for the entire body. We provided participants with performance-related auditory cues and induced online sensorimotor conflicts in free walking conditions investigating the limits of human consciousness in moving agents. We show that the control of full-body locomotion and the building of a conscious experience of it are at least partially distinct brain processes. The comparable effects on agency using audio-motor and visuo-motor cues as found in the present and previous agency work may reflect common supramodal mechanisms in conscious action monitoring. Our data may help to refine the scientific criteria of selfhood and are of relevance for the investigation of neurological and psychiatric patients with disturbance of selfhood.

[1]  Ira J. Hirsh,et al.  Auditory Perception of Temporal Order , 1959 .

[2]  I. Hirsh,et al.  Perceived order in different sense modalities. , 1961, Journal of experimental psychology.

[3]  Torsten Ingemann Nielsen,et al.  VOLITION: A NEW EXPERIMENTAL APPROACH , 1963 .

[4]  Murray Mp,et al.  Gait as a total pattern of movement. , 1967 .

[5]  M. P. Murray Gait as a total pattern of movement. , 1967, American journal of physical medicine.

[6]  S Grillner,et al.  Central pattern generators for locomotion, with special reference to vertebrates. , 1985, Annual review of neuroscience.

[7]  D. Armstrong The supraspinal control of mammalian locomotion. , 1988, The Journal of physiology.

[8]  J. Szentágothai Evolution of the brain; creation of the Self J. Eccles. Routledge, London (1989) 282 pp. £30.00 , 1990, Neuroscience.

[9]  C. Marsden,et al.  Human walking and higher‐level gait disorders, particularly in the elderly , 1993, Neurology.

[10]  L. Nyberg,et al.  “Stops walking when talking” as a predictor of falls in elderly people , 1997, The Lancet.

[11]  M. Jeannerod,et al.  Looking for the agent: an investigation into consciousness of action and self-consciousness in schizophrenic patients , 1997, Cognition.

[12]  H. Fukuyama,et al.  Brain functional activity during gait in normal subjects: a SPECT study , 1997, Neuroscience Letters.

[13]  M. Jeannerod,et al.  Limited conscious monitoring of motor performance in normal subjects , 1998, Neuropsychologia.

[14]  M. Jeannerod,et al.  Beyond Consciousness of External Reality: A “Who” System for Consciousness of Action and Self-Consciousness , 1998, Consciousness and Cognition.

[15]  Y. Blanc,et al.  Temporal parameters and patterns of the foot roll over during walking: normative data for healthy adults. , 1999, Gait & posture.

[16]  V. Macellari,et al.  Spatial-temporal parameters of gait: reference data and a statistical method for normality assessment. , 1999, Gait & posture.

[17]  D. Wolpert,et al.  Abnormalities in the awareness and control of action. , 2000, Philosophical transactions of the Royal Society of London. Series B, Biological sciences.

[18]  M. Jeannerod,et al.  Defective recognition of one's own actions in patients with schizophrenia. , 2001, The American journal of psychiatry.

[19]  K. Kubota,et al.  Cortical Mapping of Gait in Humans: A Near-Infrared Spectroscopic Topography Study , 2001, NeuroImage.

[20]  M. Jeannerod,et al.  Sense of body and sense of action both contribute to self-recognition , 2002, Cognition.

[21]  F. Shaw Falls in cognitive impairment and dementia. , 2002, Clinics in geriatric medicine.

[22]  Marc Jeannerod,et al.  Modulating the experience of agency: a positron emission tomography study , 2003, NeuroImage.

[23]  O. Blanke,et al.  Hearing of a Presence , 2003, Neurocase.

[24]  T. Drew,et al.  Cortical and brainstem control of locomotion. , 2004, Progress in brain research.

[25]  Günther Knoblich,et al.  Deceiving oneself about being in control: conscious detection of changes in visuomotor coupling. , 2004, Journal of experimental psychology. Human perception and performance.

[26]  Manos Tsakiris,et al.  A specific role for efferent information in self-recognition , 2005, Cognition.

[27]  Evolution of hominid brain: bipedality; agility , 2005 .

[28]  Atsushi Sato,et al.  Illusion of sense of self-agency: discrepancy between the predicted and actual sensory consequences of actions modulates the sense of self-agency, but not the sense of self-ownership , 2005, Cognition.

[29]  Olaf Blanke,et al.  Induction of an illusory shadow person , 2006, Nature.

[30]  Marc Jeannerod,et al.  The origin of voluntary action: history of a physiological concept. , 2006, Comptes rendus biologies.

[31]  H. Ehrsson The Experimental Induction of Out-of-Body Experiences , 2007, Science.

[32]  Marc Jeannerod,et al.  Being oneself , 2007, Journal of Physiology-Paris.

[33]  T. Metzinger,et al.  Video Ergo Sum: Manipulating Bodily Self-Consciousness , 2007, Science.

[34]  Bruno H Repp,et al.  Toward a psychophysics of agency: detecting gain and loss of control over auditory action effects. , 2007, Journal of experimental psychology. Human perception and performance.

[35]  David J. Turk,et al.  The angular gyrus computes action awareness representations. , 2008, Cerebral cortex.

[36]  Tomohisa Asai,et al.  Highly schizotypal students have a weaker sense of self‐agency , 2008, Psychiatry and Clinical Neurosciences.

[37]  Justin M. Harris,et al.  If I Were You: Perceptual Illusion of Body Swapping , 2008, PloS one.

[38]  Jeffrey M. Hausdorff,et al.  The role of executive function and attention in gait , 2008, Movement disorders : official journal of the Movement Disorder Society.

[39]  K. Hiraki,et al.  Detection of visual feedback delay in active and passive self-body movements , 2010, Experimental Brain Research.

[40]  O. Blanke,et al.  Spatial aspects of bodily self-consciousness , 2009, Consciousness and Cognition.

[41]  Bruno H. Repp,et al.  Inferring agency from sound , 2009, Cognition.

[42]  Olaf Blanke,et al.  Keeping in Touch with One's Self: Multisensory Mechanisms of Self-Consciousness , 2009, PloS one.

[43]  T. Metzinger,et al.  Full-body illusions and minimal phenomenal selfhood , 2009, Trends in Cognitive Sciences.

[44]  Oliver Alan Kannape,et al.  The limits of agency in walking humans , 2010, Neuropsychologia.