Overview of Fluorescence Protocols: Theory, Basic Concepts, and Practice

At the request of the editors, this chapter is based on the book section written by Babin (2008), however, much of the manuscript has been revised and updated to address different readerships. While Babin (2008) is aimed at a more general audience interested in understanding the basis of the measurement and the current instruments available, this chapter is aimed at those who will use the fluorescence tool and are interested in understanding more of its underlying theory, as well as the assumptions associated with it. In short, while the first chapter was aimed more at a beginning user, this one is aimed more at an intermediate user. Nevertheless, some sections have seen little changes.

[1]  Miroslaw Darecki,et al.  An attempt to use measurements of sun-induced chlorophyll fluorescence to estimate chlorophyll a concentration in the Baltic Sea , 1997, Remote Sensing.

[2]  G. Singhal.  Concepts in photobiology : photosynthesis and photomorphogenesis , 1999 .

[3]  John Twidell,et al.  The photosynthetic process , 2006 .

[4]  R. Olson,et al.  Phytoplankton photosynethetic characteristics from fluorescence induction assays of individual cells , 1996 .

[5]  S. Laney.  Assessing the error in photosynthetic properties determined by fast repetition rate fluorometry , 2003 .

[6]  P. Falkowski,et al.  Light utilization and photoinhibition of photosynthesis in marine phytoplankton , 1993 .

[7]  David M. Kramer,et al.  New Fluorescence Parameters for the Determination of QA Redox State and Excitation Energy Fluxes , 2004, Photosynthesis Research.

[8]  Howard H. Seliger,et al.  Some Limitations of the In Vivo Fluorescence Technique , 1975 .

[9]  P. Falkowski,et al.  ACCLIMATION TO SPECTRAL IRRADIANCE IN ALGAE , 1991 .

[10]  Andrew R. Solow,et al.  Growth rates of coastal phytoplankton from time‐series measurements with a submersible flow cytometer , 2003 .

[11]  P. Falkowski,et al.  Confirmation of iron limitation of phytoplankton photosynthesis in the equatorial Pacific Ocean , 1996, Nature.

[12]  P. Horton,et al.  The super-excess energy dissipation in diatom algae: comparative analysis with higher plants , 2004, Photosynthesis Research.

[13]  P. Falkowski,et al.  Nitrogen- and irradiance-dependent variations of the maximum quantum yield of carbon fixation in eutrophic, mesotrophic and oligotrophic marine systems , 1996 .

[14]  D. Phinney,et al.  Spectral fluorescence: an ataxonomic tool for studying the structure of phytoplankton populations , 1985 .

[15]  P. Falkowski,et al.  Light Harvesting and Utilization by Phytoplankton , 1986 .

[16]  Dale A. Kiefer,et al.  Natural fluorescence of chlorophyll a: Relationship to photosynthesis and chlorophyll concentration in the western South Pacific gyre , 1989 .

[17]  P. Falkowski,et al.  Measuring photosynthetic parameters in individual algal cells by Fast Repetition Rate fluorometry , 1999, Photosynthesis Research.

[18]  J. Kromkamp,et al.  The use of variable fluorescence measurements in aquatic ecosystems: differences between multiple and single turnover measuring protocols and suggested terminology , 2003 .

[19]  J. Lavaud,et al.  GENERAL FEATURES OF PHOTOPROTECTION BY ENERGY DISSIPATION IN PLANKTONIC DIATOMS (BACILLARIOPHYCEAE) 1 , 2004 .

[20]  P. Falkowski,et al.  Aquatic Photosynthesis: Second Edition , 1997 .

[21]  A. Bricaud,et al.  Theoretical results concerning light absorption in a discrete medium, and application to specific absorption of phytoplankton , 1981 .

[22]  Sallie W. Chisholm,et al.  Advances in Oceanography through Flow Cytometry , 1991 .

[23]  D. Ficek,et al.  Variability of the specific fluorescence of chlorophyll in the ocean. Part 2. Fluorometric method of chlorophyll a determination , 2000 .

[24]  B. Han,et al.  Photosynthesis-irradiance response at physiological level: a mechanistic model. , 2001, Journal of theoretical biology.

[25]  J. Raven,et al.  Adaptation, Acclimation and Regulation in Algal Photosynthesis , 2003 .

[26]  P. Horton,et al.  REGULATION OF LIGHT HARVESTING IN GREEN PLANTS. , 1996, Annual review of plant physiology and plant molecular biology.

[27]  C. Moldaenke,et al.  A reduced model of the fluorescence from the cyanobacterial photosynthetic apparatus designed for the in situ detection of cyanobacteria. , 2003, Biochimica et biophysica acta.

[28]  Catherine A. Brown,et al.  New algorithms for MODIS sun‐induced chlorophyll fluorescence and a comparison with present data products , 2005 .

[29]  G. Johnsen,et al.  Modeling of light-dependent algal photosynthesis and growth: experiments with the Barents sea diatoms Thalassiosira nordenskioldii and Chaetoceros furcellatus , 1991 .

[30]  J. Gower,et al.  A multispectral remote sensing study of coastal waters off Vancouver Island , 2004 .

[31]  W. Bilger,et al.  Continuous recording of photochemical and non-photochemical chlorophyll fluorescence quenching with a new type of modulation fluorometer , 2004, Photosynthesis Research.

[32]  P. Falkowski,et al.  Iron limitation of phytoplankton photosynthesis in the equatorial Pacific Ocean , 1994, Nature.

[33]  R. Swift,et al.  Airborne simultaneous spectroscopic detection of laser-induced water Raman backscatter and fluorescence from chlorophyll a and other naturally occurring pigments. , 1981, Applied optics.

[34]  A. Srivastava,et al.  POLYPHASIC CHLOROPHYLL a FLUORESCENCE TRANSIENT IN PLANTS AND CYANOBACTERIA * , 1995 .

[35]  V. Hurry,et al.  Photosystem II reaction centre quenching: mechanisms and physiological role , 2008, Photosynthesis Research.

[36]  Dale A. Kiefer,et al.  Chlorophyll a fluorescence in phytoplankton: relationship to photosynthesis and biomass , 1985 .

[37]  R. Reynolds,et al.  Advances in Understanding Phytoplankton Fluorescence and Photosynthesis , 1992 .

[38]  Trevor Platt,et al.  Physiological Bases of Phytoplankton Ecology , 1982 .

[39]  S. Sathyendranath,et al.  DIFFERENCES BETWEEN IN VIVO ABSORPTION AND FLUORESCENCE EXCITATION SPECTRA IN NATURAL SAMPLES OF PHYTOPLANKTON , 1998 .

[40]  E. Govindje,et al.  Sixty-Three Years Since Kautsky: Chlorophyll a Fluorescence , 1995 .

[41]  P. Falkowski,et al.  Measurements of variable chlorophyll fluorescence using fast repetition rate techniques: defining methodology and experimental protocols , 1998, Biochimica et biophysica acta.

[42]  P. Falkowski,et al.  Evidence for Cyclic Electron Flow around Photosystem II in Chlorella pyrenoidosa. , 1986, Plant physiology.

[43]  Govindjee,et al.  ChlorophyllaFluorescence Induction in Higher Plants: Modelling and Numerical Simulation , 1998 .

[44]  J. Cullen,et al.  Continuous measurement of the DCMU-induced fluorescence response of natural phytoplankton populations , 1979 .

[45]  C. Mobley.  Light and Water: Radiative Transfer in Natural Waters , 1994 .

[46]  B. Han,et al.  A mechanistic model of algal photoinhibition induced by photodamage to photosystem-II. , 2002, Journal of theoretical biology.

[47]  C. Lorenzen,et al.  A method for the continuous measurement of in vivo chlorophyll concentration , 1966 .

[48]  John J. Cullen,et al.  Biological processes and optical measurements near the sea surface: Some issues relevant to remote sensing , 1995 .

[49]  Robert Eugene Blankenship.  Molecular mechanisms of photosynthesis , 2002 .

[50]  Jules S. Jaffe,et al.  The effect of elevated levels of phaeophytin in natural water on variable fluorescence measured from phytoplankton , 2002 .

[51]  Ricardo M Letelier,et al.  Artifacts in measurements of chlorophyll fluorescence transients, with specific application to fast repetition rate fluorometry , 2008 .

[52]  F. H. Farmer,et al.  Laboratory analysis of techniques for remote sensing of estuarine parameters using laser excitation. , 1983, Applied optics.

[53]  H. Trissl,et al.  Theory of fluorescence induction in photosystem II: derivation of analytical expressions in a model including exciton-radical-pair equilibrium and restricted energy transfer between photosynthetic units. , 1995, Biophysical journal.

[54]  B. Demmig‐Adams,et al.  Photoprotection and Other Responses of Plants to High Light Stress , 1992 .

[55]  P. Fromme,et al.  Biochemical characterization and crystal structure of water oxidizing Photosystem II from Synechococcus elongatus , 2001 .

[56]  S. Chisholm,et al.  Cyanobacterial photosynthesis in the oceans: the origins and significance of divergent light-harvesting strategies. , 2002, Trends in microbiology.

[57]  H. H. Kim,et al.  New algae mapping technique by the use of an airborne laser fluorosensor. , 1973, Applied optics.

[58]  Michael J. Behrenfeld,et al.  Beam attenuation and chlorophyll concentration as alternative optical indices of phytoplankton biomass , 2006 .

[59]  J. Gower,et al.  Interpretation of the 685nm peak in water-leaving radiance spectra in terms of fluorescence, absorption and scattering, and its observation by MERIS , 1999 .

[60]  H. Dau,et al.  A fluorometric method for the differentiation of algal populations in vivo and in situ , 2004, Photosynthesis Research.

[61]  M. Behrenfeld,et al.  Widespread iron limitation of phytoplankton in the south pacific ocean , 1999, Science.

[62]  Antoine Sciandra,et al.  Introduction to the special section bio-optical and biogeochemical conditions in the South East Pacific in late 2004: the BIOSOPE program , 2008 .

[63]  Jukka Seppälä,et al.  Fast repetition rate fluorometry is not applicable to studies of filamentous cyanobacteria from the Baltic Sea , 2004 .

[64]  H. J. Woerd,et al.  In situ and remote-sensed chlorophyll fluorescence as indicator of the physiological state of phytoplankton near the Isles Kerguelen (Southern Ocean) , 2008, Polar Biology.

[65]  Petra Fromme,et al.  Crystal structure of photosystem II from Synechococcus elongatus at 3.8 Å resolution , 2001, Nature.

[66]  S. Demers,et al.  Particle analysis in oceanography , 1991 .

[67]  N. L. Greenbaum,et al.  The absolute size of a photosynthetic unit , 1989 .

[68]  D. Kiefer,et al.  Vertical distribution of phaeopigments—II. Rates of production and kinetics of photooxidation , 1982 .

[69]  I. H. Öğüş,et al.  NATO ASI Series , 1997 .

[70]  P. Falkowski,et al.  Physiological limitation of phytoplankton photosynthesis in the eastern equatorial Pacific determined from variability in the quantum yield of fluorescence , 1994 .

[71]  G. Krause,et al.  Chlorophyll Fluorescence and Photosynthesis: The Basics , 1991 .

[72]  C. W. Wright,et al.  Airborne test of laser pump-and-probe technique for assessment of phytoplankton photochemical characteristics , 2004, Photosynthesis Research.

[73]  I. Ohad,et al.  Redox regulation of thylakoid protein phosphorylation. , 2003, Antioxidants & redox signaling.

[74]  Edward V. Browell,et al.  Analysis of laser fluorosensor systems for remote algae detection and quantification , 2011 .

[75]  J. Briantais,et al.  Quenching of the system II chlorophyll fluorescence by the plastoquinone pool. , 1979, Biochimica et biophysica acta.

[76]  R J Olson,et al.  Photosynthetic characteristics of marine phytoplankton from pump-during-probe fluorometry of individual cells at sea. , 1999, Cytometry.

[77]  M. Olaizola,et al.  SHORT‐TERM RESPONSE OF THE DIADINOXANTHIN CYCLE AND FLUORESCENCE YIELD TO HIGH IRRADIANCE IN CHAETOCEROS MUELLERI (BACILLARIOPHYCEAE) 1 , 1994 .

[78]  Marcel Babin,et al.  Variations of light absorption by suspended particles with chlorophyll a concentration in oceanic (case 1) waters: Analysis and implications for bio-optical models , 1998 .

[79]  G. Kattawar,et al.  Exact 1-D solution to the problem of chlorophyll fluorescence from the ocean. , 1982, Applied optics.

[80]  D. Bryant,et al.  Prokaryotic photosynthesis and phototrophy illuminated. , 2006, Trends in microbiology.

[81]  M. Behrenfeld,et al.  IN SEARCH OF A PHYSIOLOGICAL BASIS FOR COVARIATIONS IN LIGHT‐LIMITED AND LIGHT‐SATURATED PHOTOSYNTHESIS 1 , 2004 .

[82]  P. Falkowski,et al.  Role of eddy pumping in enhancing primary production in the ocean , 1991, Nature.

[83]  V. Paakkarinen,et al.  Dynamics of photosystem II: a proteomic approach to thylakoid protein complexes. , 2004, Journal of experimental botany.

[84]  Donald H. Bundy,et al.  Use of water Raman emission to correct airborne laser fluorosensor data for effects of water optical attenuation. , 1981, Applied optics.

[85]  E. Laws,et al.  Photosynthetic quotients, new production and net community production in the open ocean , 1991 .

[86]  J. Barber.  Photosystem II: an enzyme of global significance. , 2006, Biochemical Society transactions.

[87]  Peter Jahns,et al.  Non-photochemical Energy Dissipation Determined by Chlorophyll Fluorescence Quenching: Characterization and Function , 2004 .

[88]  P. Holligan,et al.  Phytoplankton photoacclimation and photoadaptation in response to environmental gradients in a shelf sea , 2006 .

[89]  C. Yentsch,et al.  A method for the determination of phytoplankton chlorophyll and phaeophytin by fluorescence , 1963 .

[90]  J. Rochaix,et al.  Involvement of state transitions in the switch between linear and cyclic electron flow in Chlamydomonas reinhardtii , 2002, EMBO reports.

[91]  Hugh L. MacIntyre,et al.  Nutrient Limitation of Marine Photosynthesis , 1992 .

[92]  H. Gordon,et al.  Diffuse reflectance of the ocean: the theory of its augmentation by chlorophyll a fluorescence at 685 nm. , 1979, Applied optics.

[93]  Dale A. Kiefer,et al.  In-vivo absorption properties of algal pigments , 1990, Defense, Security, and Sensing.

[94]  S. W. Jeffrey,et al.  Introduction to marine phytoplankton and their pigment signatures , 1997 .

[95]  Paul G. Falkowski,et al.  Primary Productivity and Biogeochemical Cycles in the Sea , 1992 .

[96]  M. Vernet,et al.  Relationship between action spectra for chlorophyll a fluorescence and photosynthetic O2 evolution in algae , 1986 .

[97]  J. Briantais,et al.  The relationship between the quantum yield of photosynthetic electron transport and quenching of chlorophyll fluorescence , 1989 .

[98]  Catherine A. Brown,et al.  Retrieval of phytoplankton biomass from simultaneous inversion of reflectance, the diffuse attenuation coefficient, and Sun‐induced fluorescence in coastal waters , 2007 .

[99]  V. Hurry,et al.  Reaction centre quenching of excess light energy and photoprotection of photosystem II , 2008, Journal of Plant Biology.

[100]  Dusan Lazár,et al.  Chlorophyll a fluorescence rise induced by high light illumination of dark-adapted plant tissue studied by means of a model of photosystem II and considering photosystem II heterogeneity. , 2003, Journal of theoretical biology.

[101]  W. Vincent.  Photosynthetic capacity measured by DCMU‐induced chlorophyll fluorescence in an oligotrophic lake , 1981 .

[102]  R. Zepp,et al.  Determination of apparent quantum yield spectra for the formation of biologically labile photoproducts , 2002 .

[103]  S. Neuer,et al.  In situ characterization of phytoplankton from vertical profiles of fluorescence emission spectra , 1993 .

[104]  J. H. Morrow,et al.  Evidence for a simple relationship between natural fluorescence, photosynthesis and chlorophyll in the sea , 1990 .

[105]  P. Falkowski,et al.  Photosynthesis and photoprotection in symbiotic corals , 2001 .

[106]  David A. Siegel,et al.  Phytoplankton natural fluorescence variability in the Sargasso Sea , 2003 .

[107]  N. Karapetyan.  Non-photochemical quenching of fluorescence in cyanobacteria , 2007, Biochemistry (Moscow).

[108]  J. Barber,et al.  University of Groningen Structure and membrane organization of photosystem II in green plants , 2006 .

[109]  R. Strasser,et al.  A theoretical and experimental analysis of the qP and qN coefficients of chlorophyll fluorescence quenching and their relation to photochemical and nonphotochemical events , 2004, Photosynthesis Research.

[110]  R. Bassi,et al.  Carotenoid-binding proteins of photosystem II. , 1993, European journal of biochemistry.

[111]  P. Falkowski,et al.  Natural variability in photosynthetic energy conversion efficiency: A field study in the Gulf of Maine , 1990 .

[112]  D. Kiefer,et al.  Chlorophyll a fluorescence in marine centric diatoms: Responses of chloroplasts to light and nutrient stress , 1973 .

[113]  R. A. Neville,et al.  Passive remote sensing of phytoplankton via chlorophyll α fluorescence , 1977 .

[114]  B. Gentili,et al.  Remote sensing of sea surface Sun-induced chlorophyll fluorescence: consequences of natural variations in the optical characteristics of phytoplankton and the quantum yield of chlorophyll a fluorescence , 1996 .

[115]  J. R. Morrison.  In situ determination of the quantum yield of phytoplankton chlorophyll a fluorescence: A simple algorithm, observations, and a model , 2003 .

[116]  Nathan Nelson,et al.  Structure and function of photosystems I and II. , 2006, Annual review of plant biology.

[117]  John J. Cullen,et al.  Autofluorescence And Other Optical Properties As Tools In Biological Oceanography , 1988, Defense, Security, and Sensing.

[118]  W. Chow.  The photoinactivation of photosystem II in leaves: A personal perspective , 2001 .

[119]  R. Majchrowski,et al.  Variability of the specific fluorescence of chlorophyll in the ocean. Part 1. Theory of classical in situ chlorophyll fluorometry , 2000 .

[120]  Amir E O R I,et al.  Comparison of chlorophyll far-red and red fluorescence excitation spectra with , 2022 .

[121]  W. Chow,et al.  Light inactivation of functional photosystem II in leaves of peas grown in moderate light depends on photon exposure , 1995, Planta.

[122]  T. G. Owens.  Energy Transformation and Fluorescence in Photosynthesis , 1991 .

[123]  J. Raven,et al.  Photosynthesis in Algae , 2003, Advances in Photosynthesis and Respiration.

[124]  Dušan Lazár.  The polyphasic chlorophyll a fluorescence rise measured under high intensity of exciting light. , 2006, Functional plant biology : FPB.

[125]  Govindjee,et al.  Fluorescence Properties of Chlorophyll b - and Chlorophyll c -Containing Algae , 1986 .

[126]  Zonneveld.  Modeling effects of Photoadaption on the Photosynthesis-Irradiance Curve , 1997, Journal of theoretical biology.

[127]  J. Aiken,et al.  Assessment of photosynthesis in a spring cyanobacterial bloom by use of a fast repetition rate fluorometer , 2001 .

[128]  Lazăr,et al.  Chlorophyll a fluorescence induction1 , 1999, Biochimica et biophysica acta.

[129]  N. Baker,et al.  An evaluation of the potential triggers of photoinactivation of photosystem II in the context of a Stern-Volmer model for downregulation and the reversible radical pair equilibrium model. , 2000, Philosophical transactions of the Royal Society of London. Series B, Biological sciences.

[130]  Hugh L. MacIntyre,et al.  Fast repetition rate and pulse amplitude modulation chlorophyll a fluorescence measurements for assessment of photosynthetic electron transport in marine phytoplankton , 2003 .

[131]  U. Hansen,et al.  Algorithms and practical fluorescence models of the photosynthetic apparatus of red cyanobacteria and Cryptophyta designed for the fluorescence detection of red cyanobacteria and cryptophytes , 2004 .

[132]  N. Baker.  Chlorophyll fluorescence: a probe of photosynthesis in vivo. , 2008, Annual review of plant biology.

[133]  T. Cowles,et al.  Multiple excitation fluorometer for in situ oceanographic applications. , 1997, Applied optics.

[134]  A. Chekalyuk,et al.  Advanced laser fluorometry of natural aquatic environments , 2008 .

[135]  L. Legendre,et al.  DCMU-enhanced fluorescence as an index of photosynthetic activity in phytoplankton , 1979 .

[136]  Geir Johnsen,et al.  Using absorbance and fluorescence spectra to discriminate microalgae , 2002 .

[137]  Warren L. Butler,et al.  Energy Distribution in the Photochemical Apparatus of Photosynthesis , 1978 .

[138]  J. Barber,et al.  Photosynthetic acclimation: Structural reorganisation of light harvesting antenna – role of redox‐dependent phosphorylation of major and minor chlorophyll a/b binding proteins , 2008, The FEBS journal.

[139]  J. Kennis,et al.  Identification of a mechanism of photoprotective energy dissipation in higher plants , 2007, Nature.

[140]  R. Carpentier,et al.  Quantitative analysis of the experimental O–J–I–P chlorophyll fluorescence induction kinetics , 2006, The FEBS journal.

[141]  N. Welschmeyer.  Fluorometric analysis of chlorophyll a in the presence of chlorophyll b and pheopigments , 1994 .

[142]  Lisa M. Graziano,et al.  Synoptic study of variations in the fluorescence based maximum quantum efficiency of photosynthesis across the North Atlantic Ocean , 1996 .

[143]  J. Gower,et al.  Observation of chlorophyll fluorescence in west coast waters of Canada using the MODIS satellite sensor , 2004 .

[144]  D. Mauzerall.  Light-induced fluorescence changes in Chlorella, and the primary photoreactions for the production of oxygen. , 1972, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America.

[145]  Jacques Neveux,et al.  Diel variations ofin vivo fluorescence in the eastern equatorial Pacific: an unvarying pattern , 1997 .

[146]  William K. W. Li,et al.  Changes in the In Vivo Absorption and Fluorescence Excitation Spectra with Growth Irradiance in Three Species of Phytoplankton , 2001 .

[147]  F. Chavez,et al.  Controls on tropical Pacific Ocean productivity revealed through nutrient stress diagnostics , 2006, Nature.

[148]  P. Falkowski,et al.  Effects of Growth Irradiance and Nitrogen Limitation on Photosynthetic Energy Conversion in Photosystem II. , 1988, Plant physiology.

[149]  D. Kiefer,et al.  Fluorescence properties of natural phytoplankton populations , 1973 .

[150]  H. Claustre,et al.  Responses of growth rate, pigment composition and optical properties of Cryptomonas sp. to light and nitrogen stresses , 2000 .

[151]  Hugh L. MacIntyre,et al.  Evaluation of biophysical and optical determinations of light absorption by photosystem II in phytoplankton , 2004 .

[152]  R. Geider,et al.  Interpretation of fast repetition rate (FRR) fluorescence: signatures of phytoplankton community structure versus physiological state , 2009 .

[153]  A S,et al.  Chlorophyll a Fluorescence Induction in Higher Plants : Modelling and Numerical Simulation , 1998 .

[154]  C. Foyer,et al.  Homeostasis of adenylate status during photosynthesis in a fluctuating environment. , 2000, Journal of experimental botany.

[155]  J. Fischer,et al.  Sun-stimulated chlorophyll fluorescence 1: Influence of oceanic properties , 1990 .

[156]  K. Roháček.  Chlorophyll Fluorescence Parameters: The Definitions, Photosynthetic Meaning, and Mutual Relationships , 2002, Photosynthetica.

[157]  M. Barták,et al.  Technique of the Modulated Chlorophyll Fluorescence: Basic Concepts, Useful Parameters, and Some Applications , 1999, Photosynthetica.

[158]  D. Campbell,et al.  Chlorophyll Fluorescence Analysis of Cyanobacterial Photosynthesis and Acclimation , 1998, Microbiology and Molecular Biology Reviews.

[159]  J. Lavergne,et al.  Fluorescence Induction From Photosystem II: Analytical Equations for the Yields of Photochemistry and Fluorescence Derived From Analysis of a Model Including Exciton-Radical Pair Equilibrium and Restricted Energy Transfer Between Photosynthetic Units , 1995 .

[160]  H. Sosik,et al.  Light absorption by phytoplankton, photosynthetic pigments and detritus in the California Current System , 1995 .

[161]  Louis Legendre,et al.  Flow cytometry and cell sorting: A technique for analysis and sorting of aquatic particles1 , 1983 .

[162]  Govindjee,et al.  How Higher Plants Respond to Excess Light: Energy dissipation in photosystem II , 1999 .

[163]  B. Prézelin,et al.  Fluorescence excitation spectra and light utilization in two red tide dinoflagellates , 1997 .

[164]  W. Esaias,et al.  Water Raman normalization of airborne laser fluorosensor measurements: a computer model study. , 1982, Applied optics.

[165]  C. Critchley,et al.  Rapid light curves: A new fluorescence method to assess the state of the photosynthetic apparatus , 2004, Photosynthesis Research.

[166]  Marcel Babin,et al.  Variability in particle attenuation and chlorophyll fluorescence in the tropical Pacific: Scales, patterns, and biogeochemical implications , 1999 .

[167]  J. Aiken,et al.  A methodology to determine primary production and phytoplankton photosynthetic parameters from Fast Repetition Rate Fluorometry , 2004 .

[168]  L. Prieur,et al.  Analysis of variations in ocean color1 , 1977 .

[169]  Graham R Fleming,et al.  Architecture of a Charge-Transfer State Regulating Light Harvesting in a Plant Antenna Protein , 2008, Science.

[170]  H. Claustre,et al.  Diel variations in the photosynthetic parameters of Prochlorococcus strain PCC 9511: Combined effects of light and cell cycle , 2005 .

[171]  John J. Cullen,et al.  Bio‐optical inferences from chlorophyll a fluorescence: What kind of fluorescence is measured in flow cytometry? , 1989 .

[172]  J. Cullen,et al.  Inferred influence of nutrient availability on the relationship between Sun-induced chlorophyll fluorescence and incident irradiance in the Bering Sea , 2008 .

[173]  Hugh L. MacIntyre,et al.  PHOTOACCLIMATION OF PHOTOSYNTHESIS IRRADIANCE RESPONSE CURVES AND PHOTOSYNTHETIC PIGMENTS IN MICROALGAE AND CYANOBACTERIA 1 , 2002 .

[174]  B Gentili,et al.  Determination of the fluorescence quantum yield by oceanic phytoplankton in their natural habitat. , 2000, Applied optics.

[175]  F. Franck,et al.  Resolution of the Photosystem I and Photosystem II contributions to chlorophyll fluorescence of intact leaves at room temperature. , 2002, Biochimica et biophysica acta.

[176]  A. Melis,et al.  Photosystem-II damage and repair cycle in chloroplasts: what modulates the rate of photodamage ? , 1999, Trends in plant science.

[177]  U. Kopf,et al.  2,7-Bis(diethylamino)phenazoxonium chloride as a quantum counter for emission measurements between 240 and 700 nm , 1984 .

[178]  Thomas M. Powell,et al.  In situ response of phytoplankton fluorescence to rapid variations in light1 , 1982 .

[179]  R. Bidigare,et al.  Accessory pigments versus chlorophyll a concentrations within the euphotic zone: A ubiquitous relationship , 2000 .

[180]  D. Collins,et al.  The role of reabsorption in the spectral distribution of phytoplankton fluorescence emission , 1985 .

[181]  Bruce Osborne,et al.  Remote Sensing of Algal Photosynthesis , 1992 .

[182]  P. Falkowski,et al.  Measurement of photosynthetic parameters in benthic organisms in situ using a SCUBA‐based fast repetition rate fluorometer , 2000 .

[183]  John J. Cullen,et al.  THE BLANK CAN MAKE A BIG DIFFERENCE IN OCEANOGRAPHIC MEASUREMENTS , 2003 .

[184]  J. Cullen,et al.  FLUORESCENCE‐BASED MAXIMAL QUANTUM YIELD FOR PSII AS A DIAGNOSTIC OF NUTRIENT STRESS , 2001 .

[185]  K. Niyogi,et al.  PHOTOPROTECTION REVISITED: Genetic and Molecular Approaches. , 1999, Annual review of plant physiology and plant molecular biology.

[186]  Annick Bricaud,et al.  Natural variability of phytoplanktonic absorption in oceanic waters: Influence of the size structure of algal populations , 2004 .

[187]  Ricardo M Letelier,et al.  An analysis of chlorophyll fluorescence algorithms for the moderate resolution imaging spectrometer (MODIS) , 1996 .

[188]  E. Aro,et al.  Photoinhibition of Photosystem II. Inactivation, protein damage and turnover. , 1993, Biochimica et biophysica acta.

[189]  A. Holzwarth,et al.  Kinetic and Energetic Model for the Primary Processes in Photosystem II. , 1988, Biophysical journal.

[190]  C. Davis,et al.  Primary production estimates from recordings of solar-stimulated fluorescence in the equatorial Pacific at 150°W , 1992 .

[191]  G. Janowitz,et al.  A biophysical model of population dynamics of the autotrophic dinoflagellate Gymnodinium breve , 2001 .

[192]  A. Morel.  Optical modeling of the upper ocean in relation to its biogenous matter content (case I waters) , 1988 .

[193]  Govindjee,et al.  Chlorophyll a Fluorescence: A Signature of Photosynthesis , 2006 .

[194]  P. Falkowski,et al.  Use of active fluorescence to estimate phytoplankton photosynthesis in situ , 1993 .

[195]  Dale A. Kiefer,et al.  Chlorophyll α specific absorption and fluorescence excitation spectra for light-limited phytoplankton , 1988 .

[196]  D. Vaulot,et al.  Diel variability of photosynthetic picoplankton in the equatorial Pacific , 1999 .

[197]  R. Geider,et al.  A mechanistic model of photoinhibition , 2000 .

[198]  M. Perry,et al.  In situ phytoplankton absorption, fluorescence emission, and particulate backscattering spectra determined from reflectance , 1995 .