Bullying: Short-Term and Long-Term Effects, and the Importance of Defiance Theory in Explanation and Prevention

Abstract Bullying is often followed by short-term and long-term undesirable psychosocial consequences. Both victims and perpetrators of bullying tend to have high numbers of physical and psychological symptoms. In order to prevent bullying and its aversive results, it is important to formulate and test theories of bullying. This article investigates the usefulness of defiance theory in the explanation of the bullying of siblings in families and peers in schools. Questionnaires were completed by 182 children aged 11 to 12 in ten primary schools in Nicosia, Cyprus. We followed a vignette-based methodology to investigate children's defiant behavior. Children were given a hypothetical scenario—in which the perpetrator is sanctioned by the parents—and were then asked questions that aimed to investigate defiant or compliant reactions to the sanctions imposed. The type of child in the vignette was experimentally manipulated so that children could make inferences regarding his/her intentionality of wrongdoing. The results indicate that defiance theory is useful in explaining bullying behavior. The main implication from our research is that defiance theory can assist teachers and practitioners in implementing whole-school restorative justice approaches to reduce bullying in schools.

[1]  David P. Farrington,et al.  Effectiveness of Programs to Prevent School Bullying , 2007 .

[2]  J. Hoover,et al.  The Relationship Between School-Aged Bullying and Trust, Shyness and Quality of Friendships in Young Adulthood , 2006 .

[3]  A. Sourander,et al.  Childhood predictors of male criminality: a prospective population-based follow-up study from age 8 to late adolescence. , 2006, Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry.

[4]  James E. Freeman,et al.  Deterrence, Defiance and Deviance: An Investigation Into a Group of Recidivist Drink Drivers' Self-Reported Offending Behaviours , 2006 .

[5]  David Brownfield.  A defiance theory of sanctions and gang membership , 2006 .

[6]  S. Perren,et al.  Social behavior and peer relationships of victims, bully-victims, and bullies in kindergarten. , 2006, Journal of child psychology and psychiatry, and allied disciplines.

[7]  Mark S Chapell,et al.  Bullying in elementary school, high school, and college. , 2006, Adolescence.

[8]  Mary A. Kernic,et al.  Bullying, psychosocial adjustment, and academic performance in elementary school. , 2005, Archives of pediatrics & adolescent medicine.

[9]  R. McMahon,et al.  Evidence-Based Assessment of Conduct Problems in Children and Adolescents , 2005, Journal of clinical child and adolescent psychology : the official journal for the Society of Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology, American Psychological Association, Division 53.

[10]  Catherine J. Simonelli,et al.  Scale of Negative Family Interactions , 2005, Journal of interpersonal violence.

[11]  E. Ahmed.  Pastoral Care to Regulate School Bullying: Shame Management among Bystanders , 2005 .

[12]  Karin S. Frey,et al.  Reducing playground bullying and supporting beliefs: an experimental trial of the steps to respect program. , 2005, Developmental psychology.

[13]  P. Scheidt,et al.  Bullying and symptoms among school-aged children: international comparative cross sectional study in 28 countries. , 2005, European journal of public health.

[14]  Young Shin Kim,et al.  School Bullying and Suicidal Risk in Korean Middle School Students , 2005, Pediatrics.

[15]  Constantinos M. Kokkinos,et al.  Predicting bullying and victimization among early adolescents: Associations with disruptive behavior disorders , 2004 .

[16]  V. Braithwaite,et al.  “What, Me Ashamed?” Shame Management and School Bullying , 2004 .

[17]  D. Wolke,et al.  Bullied by siblings: association with peer victimisation and behaviour problems in Israeli lower secondary school children. , 2004, Journal of child psychology and psychiatry, and allied disciplines.

[18]  E. Andreou.  Bully/victim problems and their association with Machiavellianism and self-efficacy in Greek primary school children. , 2004, The British journal of educational psychology.

[19]  L. A. Valle,et al.  Expect Respect: A School-based Intervention to Promote Awareness and Effective Responses to Bullying and Sex Harassment , 2004 .

[20]  M. Fekkes,et al.  Bullying behavior and associations with psychosomatic complaints and depression in victims. , 2004, The Journal of pediatrics.

[21]  Ken Rigby,et al.  Consequences of Bullying in Schools , 2003, Canadian journal of psychiatry. Revue canadienne de psychiatrie.

[22]  M. F. van der Wal,et al.  Psychosocial health among young victims and offenders of direct and indirect bullying. , 2003, Pediatrics.

[23]  Peter K. Smith,et al.  Definitions of bullying: a comparison of terms used, and age and gender differences, in a fourteen-country international comparison. , 2002, Child development.

[24]  C. C. Helwig,et al.  The relation between law and morality: children's reasoning about socially beneficial and unjust laws. , 2001, Child development.

[25]  L Karstadt,et al.  Bullying involvement in primary school and common health problems , 2001, Archives of disease in childhood.

[26]  J B Carlin,et al.  Does bullying cause emotional problems? A prospective study of young teenagers , 2001, BMJ : British Medical Journal.

[27]  A. Houndoumadi,et al.  Bullying Among Primary School Children in Athens, Greece , 2001 .

[28]  Ramani S. Pilla,et al.  Bullying Behaviors Among US Youth: Prevalence and Association With Psychosocial Adjustment , 2001 .

[29]  K. Puura,et al.  Psychiatric disorders and the use of mental health services among children involved in bullying , 2001 .

[30]  A. Rimpelä,et al.  Bullying at school--an indicator of adolescents at risk for mental disorders. , 2000, Journal of adolescence.

[31]  Sarah N. Woods,et al.  The association between direct and relational bullying and behaviour problems among primary school children. , 2000, Journal of child psychology and psychiatry, and allied disciplines.

[32]  G. Salmon,et al.  Bullying a Review: Presentations to an Adolescent Psychiatric Service and within a School for Emotionally and Behaviourally Disturbed Children , 2000 .

[33]  A. Sourander,et al.  Persistence of bullying from childhood to adolescence--a longitudinal 8-year follow-up study. , 2000, Child abuse & neglect.

[34]  F. Rivara,et al.  Bullying: children hurting children. , 2000, Pediatrics in review.

[35]  G. Kochanska,et al.  Mother-child mutually responsive orientation and conscience development: from toddler to early school age. , 2000, Child development.

[36]  Panayiotis Kalliotis.  Bullying as a Special Case of Aggression , 2000 .

[37]  R. Ortega,et al.  The Seville Anti-Bullying in School Project , 2000 .

[38]  D. Shaw,et al.  Destructive sibling conflict and the development of conduct problems in young boys. , 2000, Developmental psychology.

[39]  Andy P. Field,et al.  Discovering Statistics Using SPSS , 2000 .

[40]  K. Kumpulainen,et al.  Children involved in bullying: psychological disturbance and the persistence of the involvement. , 1999, Child abuse & neglect.

[41]  A Rimpelä,et al.  Bullying, depression, and suicidal ideation in Finnish adolescents: school survey , 1999, BMJ.

[42]  C. Rissel,et al.  Bullying behaviour and psychosocial health among school students in New South Wales, Australia: cross sectional survey , 1999, BMJ.

[43]  Renae D. Duncan.  Peer and Sibling Aggression: , 1999 .

[44]  D. Espelage,et al.  Factors Associated with Bullying Behavior in Middle School Students , 1999 .

[45]  S. Hugh-Jones,et al.  Self-reports of short- and long-term effects of bullying on children who stammer. , 1999, The British journal of educational psychology.

[46]  Renae D. Duncan.  Maltreatment by Parents and Peers: The Relationship between Child Abuse, Bully Victimization, and Psychological Distress , 1999 .

[47]  P. Bentler,et al.  Cutoff criteria for fit indexes in covariance structure analysis : Conventional criteria versus new alternatives , 1999 .

[48]  G. Salmon,et al.  Bullying in schools: self reported anxiety, depression, and self esteem in secondary school children , 1998, BMJ.

[49]  B. Nemery,et al.  The hot air on passive smoking , 1998, BMJ.

[50]  D. Olweus.  Bully/victim problems in school: Facts and intervention , 1997 .

[51]  Tamao Matsui,et al.  Long-Term Outcomes of Early Victimization by Peers among Japanese Male University Students: Model of a Vicious Cycle , 1996, Psychological reports.

[52]  Stephen D. Mastrofski,et al.  Compliance on Demand: The Public's Response to Specific Police Requests , 1996 .

[53]  J. Martin,et al.  Do mitigating circumstances influence family reactions to physical aggression? , 1996, Child development.

[54]  Richard G. Lomax,et al.  A Beginner's Guide to Structural Equation Modeling , 2022 .

[55]  G. Kochanska,et al.  A longitudinal study of the roots of preschoolers' conscience: committed compliance and emerging internalization. , 1995, Child development.

[56]  S. Sharp.  How much does bullying hurt? The effects of bullying on the personal wellbeing and educational progress of secondary aged students. , 1995 .

[57]  M. Boulton,et al.  Bully/victim problems in middle-school children: Stability, self-perceived competence, peer perceptions and peer acceptance , 1994 .

[58]  R. Astor.  Children's Moral Reasoning about Family and Peer Violence: The Role of Provocation and Retribution , 1994 .

[59]  Peter K. Smith,et al.  Perceived Family Relationships of Bullies, Victims and Bully/Victims in Middle Childhood , 1994 .

[60]  Lawrence W. Sherman,et al.  Defiance, Deterrence, and Irrelevance: A Theory of the Criminal Sanction , 1993 .

[61]  D. Farrington.  Understanding and Preventing Bullying , 1993, Crime and Justice.

[62]  Kenneth H. Rubin,et al.  Social Withdrawal, inhibition, and Shyness in Childhood , 1993 .

[63]  M. Boulton,et al.  Bully/victim problems among middle school children. , 1992, The British journal of educational psychology.

[64]  Philip Smith,et al.  Cohesion and power in the families of children involved in bully/victim problems at school , 1992 .

[65]  J. Parker,et al.  Peer relations and later personal adjustment: are low-accepted children at risk? , 1987, Psychological bulletin.

[66]  B. Gilmartin.  Peer group antecedents of severe love-shyness in males. , 1987, Journal of personality.

[67]  Michael F. Troy,et al.  Victimization among preschoolers: role of attachment relationship history. , 1987, Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry.

[68]  M. Zanna,et al.  Children's Perceptions of Procedural Justice. , 1984 .