Cognitive, collaborative, conceptual and creative - Four characteristics of the next generation of knowledge-based CAD systems: A study in biologically inspired design

We envision that the next generation of knowledge-based CAD systems will be characterized by four features: they will be based on cognitive accounts of design, and they will support collaborative design, conceptual design, and creative design. In this paper, we first analyze these four dimensions of CAD. We then report on a study in the design, development and deployment of a knowledge-based CAD system for supporting biologically inspired design that illustrates these four characteristics. This system, called DANE for Design by Analogy to Nature Engine, provides access to functional models of biological systems. Initial results from in situ deployment of DANE in a senior-level interdisciplinary class on biologically inspired design indicates its usefulness in helping designers conceptualize design of complex systems, thus promising enough to motivate continued work on knowledge-based CAD for biologically inspired design. More importantly from our perspective, DANE illustrates how cognitive studies of design can inform the development of CAD systems for collaborative, conceptual, and creative design, help assess their use in practice, and provide new insights into human interaction with knowledge-based CAD systems.

[1]  Robert A. Adey.  Artificial Intelligence in Engineering Design , 1993 .

[2]  Ashok K. Goel,et al.  A content account of creative analogies in biologically inspired design , 2010, Artificial Intelligence for Engineering Design, Analysis and Manufacturing.

[3]  Willemien Visser,et al.  Two functions of analogical reasoning in design: a cognitive-psychology approach , 1996 .

[4]  Richard H. C. Bonser,et al.  Technology trajectories, innovation, and the growth of biomimetics , 2007 .

[5]  Ashok K. Goel,et al.  Discovery of physical principles from design experiences , 1994, Artificial Intelligence for Engineering Design, Analysis and Manufacturing.

[6]  Rivka Oxman,et al.  Design by re-representation: a model of visual reasoning in design , 1997 .

[7]  Randy H. Katz,et al.  Version modeling concepts for computer-aided design databases , 1986, SIGMOD '86.

[8]  Eleni Stroulia,et al.  Functional device models and model-Based diagnosis in adaptive design , 1996, Artificial Intelligence for Engineering Design, Analysis and Manufacturing.

[9]  Tetsuo Tomiyama,et al.  Functional Reasoning in Design , 1997, IEEE Expert.

[10]  Mauricio Suárez,et al.  Model-Based Reasoning in Scientific Discovery , 1999 .

[11]  Michael N. Huhns,et al.  Argo: a system for design by analogy , 1988, IEEE Expert.

[12]  Ashok K. Goel,et al.  Visual analogy: Viewing analogical retrieval and mapping as constraint satisfaction problems , 2006, Applied Intelligence.

[13]  Mary Lou Maher,et al.  KRITIK: An Early Case-Based Design System , 2014 .

[14]  D. Gentner,et al.  The analogical mind : perspectives from cognitive science , 2001 .

[15]  Thomas F. Stahovich.  LearnIT: An Instance-Based Approach to Learning and Reusing Design Strategies , 2000 .

[16]  Craig A. Tovey,et al.  On Honey Bees and Dynamic Server Allocation in Internet Hosting Centers , 2004, Adapt. Behav..

[17]  John P. McDermott,et al.  R1: A Rule-Based Configurer of Computer Systems , 1982, Artif. Intell..

[18]  Duvvuru Sriram,et al.  Artificial intelligence in engineering design (Volume I): design representation and models of routine design , 1992 .

[19]  Mary Lou Maher,et al.  Issues and Applications of Case Based Reasoning to Design , 1997 .

[20]  Robert L. Nagel,et al.  Exploring the Use of Functional Models in Biomimetic Conceptual Design , 2008 .

[21]  Tetsuo Tomiyama,et al.  A review of function modeling: Approaches and applications , 2008, Artificial Intelligence for Engineering Design, Analysis and Manufacturing.

[22]  Tetsuo Tomiyama,et al.  Supporting conceptual design based on the function-behavior-state modeler , 1996, Artificial Intelligence for Engineering Design, Analysis and Manufacturing.

[23]  Ashok K. Goel,et al.  Structure, behavior, and function of complex systems: The structure, behavior, and function modeling language , 2008, Artificial Intelligence for Engineering Design, Analysis and Manufacturing.

[24]  Yoseph Bar-Cohen,et al.  Biomimetics : Biologically Inspired Technologies , 2011 .

[25]  Nancy J. Nersessian,et al.  Model-Based Reasoning in Conceptual Change , 1999 .

[26]  PATRICK W. YANER,et al.  VISUAL ANALOGY: VIEWING RETRIEVAL AND MAPPING AS CONSTRAINT SATISFACTION PROBLEMS , 2004 .

[27]  Ian Smith,et al.  CADRE: case-based geometric design , 1996, Artif. Intell. Eng..

[28]  Marc J. Weissburg,et al.  EDITORIAL: Perspectives on biologically inspired design: introduction to the collected contributions , 2007 .

[29]  Nigel Cross,et al.  Solution driven versus problem driven design: strategies and outcomes , 2006 .

[30]  Clive L. Dym,et al.  PRIDE: An Expert System for the Design of Paper Handling Systems , 1986, Computer.

[31]  Angi Voß,et al.  Reasoning with complex cases , 1997 .

[32]  L. H. Shu,et al.  Biomimetic design through natural language analysis to facilitate cross-domain information retrieval , 2007, Artificial Intelligence for Engineering Design, Analysis and Manufacturing.

[33]  松田 直人.  『Google Scholar』の利点 , 2009 .

[34]  Mohan Srinivasarao,et al.  Biologically Inspired Design: Color on Wings , 1997 .

[35]  Christopher Tong,et al.  Artificial Intelligence in Engineering Design , 1992 .

[36]  B. Chandrasekaran,et al.  Functional representation: A brief historical perspective , 1994, Appl. Artif. Intell..

[37]  J. Grafman,et al.  ROLE OF THE RIGHT PREFRONTAL CORTEX IN ILL-STRUCTURED PLANNING , 2000, Cognitive neuropsychology.

[38]  P. Pu,et al.  Assembly sequence planning using case-based reasoning techniques , 1991, Knowl. Based Syst..

[39]  L. H. Shu,et al.  Using descriptions of biological phenomena for idea generation , 2008 .

[40]  Jami J. Shah,et al.  Evaluation of idea generation methods for conceptual design: Effectiveness metrics and design of experiments , 2000 .

[41]  Arthur B. Markman,et al.  Modality and representation in analogy , 2008, Artificial Intelligence for Engineering Design, Analysis and Manufacturing.

[42]  Ashok K. Goel.  Design, Analogy, and Creativity , 1997, IEEE Expert.

[43]  Henri Christiaans,et al.  Design Knowing and Learning: Cognition in Design Education , 2002 .

[44]  Leo Joskowicz,et al.  Computational Kinematics , 1991, Artif. Intell..

[45]  John S. Gero,et al.  The Situated Function — Behaviour — Structure Framework , 2004 .

[46]  Ashok K. Goel,et al.  Use of design patterns in analogy-based design , 2004, Adv. Eng. Informatics.

[47]  Jonathan Cagan,et al.  Expertise differences in the mental representation of mechanical devices in engineering design , 2006 .

[48]  Markus Stumptner,et al.  An overview of knowledgedbased configuration , 1997 .

[49]  Ashok K. Goel,et al.  Design, innovation and case-based reasoning , 2005, The Knowledge Engineering Review.

[50]  Ram D. Sriram,et al.  From symbol to form: a framework for conceptual design , 1996, Comput. Aided Des..

[51]  Gabriela Goldschmidt,et al.  Expertise and the use of visual analogy: implications for design education , 1999 .

[52]  Ram D. Sriram,et al.  Design Repositories: Engineering Design's New Knowledge Base , 2000, IEEE Intell. Syst..

[53]  Ellen Yi-Luen Do,et al.  Drawing on the Back of an Envelope: a framework for interacting with application programs by freehand drawing , 2000, Comput. Graph..

[54]  Louis L. Bucciarelli,et al.  An ethnographic perspective on engineering design , 1988 .

[55]  Bo T. Christensen,et al.  The relationship of analogical distance to analogical function and preinventive structure: the case of engineering design , 2007, Memory & cognition.

[56]  Gerhard Fischer,et al.  Knowledge Management: Problems, Promises, Realities, and Challenges , 2001, IEEE Intell. Syst..

[57]  Mark R. Cutkosky,et al.  PACT: an experiment in integrating concurrent engineering systems , 1993, Computer.

[58]  Steven M. Smith,et al.  Metrics for measuring ideation effectiveness , 2003 .

[59]  Thomas F. Stahovich,et al.  Generating Multiple New Designs from a Sketch , 1996, Artif. Intell..

[60]  John R. Dixon,et al.  Guiding conceptual design through behavioral reasoning , 1994 .

[61]  Jonathan Grudin,et al.  Supporting Indirect Collaborative Design With Integrated Knowledge-Based Design Environments , 1992, Hum. Comput. Interact..

[62]  S. P. Pandya,et al.  Band structure in , 1997 .

[63]  Clive L. Dym,et al.  Engineering Design: A Synthesis of Views , 1994 .

[64]  Riichiro Mizoguchi,et al.  A functional concept ontology and its application to automatic identification of functional structures , 2002, Adv. Eng. Informatics.

[65]  David C. Brown,et al.  Design Problem Solving: Knowledge Structures and Control Strategies , 1989 .

[66]  Markus Stumptner,et al.  An Overview of Knowledge-Based Configuration , 1997, AI Commun..

[67]  Katia Sycara,et al.  CADET: a case-based synthesis tool for engineering design , 1991 .

[68]  Daniel A. McAdams,et al.  Integrating Function-Based and Biomimetic Design for Automatic Concept Generation , 2007 .

[69]  Amaresh Chakrabarti,et al.  A functional representation for aiding biomimetic and artificial inspiration of new ideas , 2005, Artificial Intelligence for Engineering Design, Analysis and Manufacturing.

[70]  Gabriela Goldschmidt,et al.  On visual design thinking: the vis kids of architecture , 1994 .

[71]  Santiago V. Lombeyda,et al.  An Approach to Capturing Structure, Behavior, and Function of Artifacts in Computer-Aided Design , 2001, J. Comput. Inf. Sci. Eng..

[72]  John P. McDermott,et al.  VT: An Expert Elevator Designer That Uses Knowledge-Based Backtracking , 1988, AI Mag..

[73]  Vinod Goel,et al.  The Structure of Design Problem Spaces , 1992, Cogn. Sci..

[74]  Louis I. Steinberg.  Design as Refinement Plus Constraint Propagation: The VEXED Experience , 1987, AAAI.

[75]  한승헌,et al.  인터넷 기반 Collaborative Design 시스템 개발 , 1997 .

[76]  D. Ross.  Computer-aided design , 1961, CACM.

[77]  Lorenzo Magnani,et al.  Model-Based Reasoning in Scientific Discovery , 1999, Springer US.

[78]  Ashok K. Goel,et al.  Analogical recognition of shape and structure in design drawings , 2008, Artificial Intelligence for Engineering Design, Analysis and Manufacturing.

[79]  Ashok K. Goel,et al.  Functional modeling for enabling adaptive design of devices for new environments , 1998, Artif. Intell. Eng..

[80]  Ernest A. Edmonds,et al.  Support for collaborative design: agents and emergence , 1994, CACM.

[81]  R. Giere.  Cognitive Models of Science , 1992 .

[82]  Andrés Gómez de Silva Garza,et al.  Case-Based Reasoning in Design , 1995, IEEE Expert.

[83]  Padraig Cunningham,et al.  Hierarchical Case-Based Reasoning Integrating Case-Based and Decompositional Problem-Solving Techniques for Plant-Control Software Design , 2001, IEEE Trans. Knowl. Data Eng..

[84]  Janet L. Kolodner,et al.  Towards More Creative Case-Based Design Systems , 1994, AAAI.

[85]  Jim Davies,et al.  A computational model of visual analogies in design , 2009, Cognitive Systems Research.

[86]  Eleni Stroulia,et al.  Askjef: Integration of Case-Based and Multimedia Technologies for Interface Design Support , 1992 .

[87]  Michael Joseph French,et al.  Conceptual Design for Engineers , 1985 .

[88]  Simon Szykman,et al.  A functional basis for engineering design: Reconciling and evolving previous efforts , 2002 .

[89]  Thomas F. Stahovich,et al.  Artificial intelligence for design , 2001 .

[90]  Ian F. C. Smith,et al.  Spatial composition using cases: IDIOM , 1995, ICCBR.

[91]  Alex H. B. Duffy,et al.  A foundation for machine learning in design , 1998, Artificial Intelligence for Engineering Design, Analysis and Manufacturing.

[92]  Masaki Suwa,et al.  What do architects and students perceive in their design sketches? A protocol analysis , 1997 .

[93]  Ashok K. Goel,et al.  Explanatory Interface in Interactive Design Environments , 1996 .

[94]  Ram D. Sriram,et al.  An Information Modeling Framework to Support Design Databases and Repositories , 1997 .

[95]  Sandra Marcus,et al.  VT: an expert elevator designer that uses K-B backtracking , 1988 .

[96]  J. Dill,et al.  Intelligent computer aided design , 1993 .

[97]  Nathalie Bonnardel,et al.  Towards understanding and supporting creativity in design: analogies in a constrained cognitive environment , 2000, Knowl. Based Syst..

[98]  M. L. Maher,et al.  Using analogical reasoning to design buildings , 2005, Engineering with Computers.

[99]  Uday A. Athavankar,et al.  Mental Imagery as a Design Tool , 1997, Cybern. Syst..

[100]  John R. Dixon,et al.  A review of research in mechanical engineering design. Part II: Representations, analysis, and design for the life cycle , 1989 .

[101]  Ashok K. Goel,et al.  Case-based design support: a case study in architectural design , 1992, IEEE Expert.

[102]  John S. Gero,et al.  An approach to the analysis of design protocols , 1998 .

[103]  Alex H. B. Duffy,et al.  Towards an ontology of generic engineering design activities , 2003 .

[104]  Tomasz Arciszewski,et al.  Machine Learning of Design Rules: Methodology and Case Study , 1994 .

[105]  E. McDonough,et al.  An investigation of the use of global, virtual, and colocated new product development teams , 2001 .

[106]  N. Cross.  The Nature and Nurture of Design Ability , 1990 .

[107]  Steven M. Smith,et al.  Constraining effects of examples in a creative generation task , 1993, Memory & cognition.

[108]  Willemien Visser,et al.  More or Less Following a Plan During Design: Opportunistic Deviations in Specification , 1990, Int. J. Man Mach. Stud..

[109]  Ram D. Sriram,et al.  The Role of Knowledge in Next-generation Product Development Systems , 2001, J. Comput. Inf. Sci. Eng..

[110]  Monica S. Lam,et al.  Jade: a high-level, machine-independent language for parallel programming , 1993, Computer.

[111]  Amaresh Chakrabarti,et al.  The effect of representation of triggers on design outcomes , 2008, Artificial Intelligence for Engineering Design, Analysis and Manufacturing.

[112]  John S. Gero,et al.  Behaviour: A link between function and structure in design , 1992 .

[113]  Lucienne Blessing,et al.  Understanding the differences between how novice and experienced designers approach design tasks , 2003 .

[114]  Boi Faltings,et al.  FAMING: Supporting innovative mechanism shape design , 1996, Comput. Aided Des..

[115]  B. Chandrasekaran,et al.  Functional Representation and Causal Processes , 1994, Adv. Comput..

[116]  Leo Joskowicz,et al.  Kinematic tolerance analysis , 1997, Comput. Aided Des..

[117]  Shamkant B. Navathe,et al.  Version management of composite objects in CAD databases , 1991, SIGMOD '91.

[118]  K. Dunbar.  HOW SCIENTISTS REALLY REASON: SCIENTIFIC REASONING IN REAL-WORLD LABORATORIES , 1995 .

[119]  Riichiro Mizoguchi,et al.  Deployment of an ontological framework of functional design knowledge , 2004, Adv. Eng. Informatics.

[120]  Gerald Jay Sueeaan.  Electrical design: a problem for artificial intelligence research , 1977, IJCAI 1977.

[121]  Gerald J. Sussman,et al.  Electrical Design: A Problem for Artificial Intelligence Research , 1977, IJCAI.

[122]  Peter G. Underwood.  Issues and applications of case‐based reasoning in design , 1998 .

[123]  Ram D. Sriram.  Distributed and Integrated Collaborative Engineering Design , 2002 .

[124]  Ashok K. Goel,et al.  Biologically inspired design: process and products , 2009 .

[125]  Eswaran Subrahmanian,et al.  Boundary Objects and Prototypes at the Interfaces of Engineering Design , 2003, Computer Supported Cooperative Work (CSCW).

[126]  John P. McDermott,et al.  R1 ("XCON") at Age 12: Lessons from an Elementary School Achiever , 1993, Artificial Intelligence.

[127]  GoelAshok k.,et al.  Structure, behavior, and function of complex systems , 2009 .

[128]  John S. Gero,et al.  Artificial Intelligence in Design ’98 , 1998, Springer Netherlands.

[129]  Jonathan Cagan,et al.  Formal Engineering Design Synthesis , 2005 .

[130]  Alex H. B. Duffy,et al.  Evolving a model of learning in design , 2004 .

[131]  J. Vincent,et al.  Systematic technology transfer from biology to engineering , 2002, Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London. Series A: Mathematical, Physical and Engineering Sciences.

[132]  Tetsuo Tomiyama.  Intelligent computer-aided design systems: Past 20 years and future 20 years , 2007, Artificial Intelligence for Engineering Design, Analysis and Manufacturing.

[133]  Masaki Suwa,et al.  Macroscopic analysis of design processes based on a scheme for coding designers' cognitive actions , 1998 .

[134]  Louis L. Bucciarelli,et al.  Designing Engineers , 1994 .

[135]  Jack Mostow,et al.  Automated reuse of design plans , 1989, Artif. Intell. Eng..

[136]  John R. Dixon,et al.  A review of research in mechanical engineering design. Part I: Descriptive, prescriptive, and computer-based models of design processes , 1989 .

[137]  Ashok K. Goel,et al.  Model-based design indexing and index learning in engineering design , 1996 .

[138]  Janine M. Benyus,et al.  Biomimicry: Innovation Inspired by Nature , 1997 .