Electrochemical deposition of metals onto silicon

The general concepts governing the electrochemical deposition of metal films onto semiconductors are discussed. Deposition onto semiconductor surfaces is complicated due to the band structure of the semiconductor, which affects both the thermodynamics and the kinetics of metal deposition processes. The influence of the potential distribution at the semiconductor/solution interface on the charge transfer mechanisms involved in deposition of metals is discussed. Models for electrochemical nucleation and growth are described and the influence of the unique physical properties of semiconductors is analysed. Finally, we present recent results for electrochemical deposition of gold, copper and platinum onto n-type silicon.

[1]  B. Horrocks,et al.  Advances in Electrochemical Science and Engineering , 2000 .

[2]  P. Vereecken,et al.  An improved procedure for the processing of chronoamperometric data: Application to the electrodeposition of Cu upon (100) n-GaAs , 1997 .

[3]  K. A. Black,et al.  Mechanism of Copper Deposition on Silicon from Dilute Hydrofluoric Acid Solution , 1997 .

[4]  R. Memming.  Surface chemistry and charge transfer kinetics at semiconductor-liquid interfaces , 1997 .

[5]  D. Vanmaekelbergh.  Direct and surface state mediated electron transfer at semiconductor/electrolyte junctions—I. A comparison of steady-state results , 1997 .

[6]  D. Vanmaekelbergh.  Direct and surface state mediated electron transfer at semiconductor/electrolyte junctions—II. A comparison of the interfacial admittance , 1997 .

[7]  Mehran Mehregany,et al.  Electroless plating of nickel on silicon for fabrication of high-aspect-ratio microstructures , 1996 .

[8]  P. Searson,et al.  Electrical Properties of n‐Type (111) Si in Aqueous K 4Fe ( CN ) 6 Solution I. Interface States and Recombination Impedance , 1996 .

[9]  P. Searson,et al.  Electrical Properties of n‐Type (III) Si in Aqueous K 4Fe ( CN ) 6 Solution II. Intensity Modulated Photocurrent Spectroscopy , 1996 .

[10]  E. Budevski,et al.  Electrochemical Phase Formation and Growth , 1996 .

[11]  A. Nozik,et al.  Study of electron transfer at semiconductor-liquid interfaces addressing the full system electronic structure , 1996 .

[12]  T. I. Quickenden,et al.  Toward a Reliable Value for the Diffusion Coefficient of Cupric Ion in Aqueous Solution , 1996 .

[13]  P. Gorostiza,et al.  First stages of platinum electroless deposition on silicon (100) from hydrogen fluoride solutions studied by AFM , 1996 .

[14]  Hoffmann,et al.  In situ measurements of interface states at silicon surfaces in fluoride solutions. , 1996, Physical review letters.

[15]  J. Schmidt,et al.  Energetics and kinetics of surface states at n-type silicon surfaces in aqueous fluoride solutions , 1996 .

[16]  D. Kolb,et al.  Cu deposition onto n-GaAs(100): optical and current transient studies , 1995 .

[17]  Arthur J. Nozik,et al.  Surface Electron Transfer Processes , 1995 .

[18]  Tadahiro Ohmi,et al.  Mechanism of Metallic Particle Growth and Metal‐Induced Pitting on Si Wafer Surface in Wet Chemical Processing , 1994 .

[19]  Werner Kern,et al.  Handbook of Semiconductor Wafer Cleaning Technology: Science, Technology, and Applications , 1994 .

[20]  P. Allongue,et al.  Metal electrodeposition on semiconductors: Part 2. Description of the nucleation processes , 1993 .

[21]  G. Oskam,et al.  The electrical and electrochemical properties of gold-plated InP , 1993 .

[22]  L. Nagahara,et al.  Effects of HF solution in the electroless deposition process on silicon surfaces , 1993 .

[23]  G. Oskam,et al.  The influence of electrodeposited gold on the properties of III–V semiconductor electrodes—part 3. Results on n-GaAs provided with thick gold l , 1993 .

[24]  W. Kruijt,et al.  Probabilistic analysis of the distance between clusters randomly distributed on the electrode surface , 1993 .

[25]  Philippe Allongue,et al.  Etching of Silicon in NaOH Solutions II . Electrochemical Studies of n‐Si(111) and (100) and Mechanism of the Dissolution , 1993 .

[26]  Philippe Allongue,et al.  Etching of silicon in NaOH solutions. I: In-situ STM investigation of n-Si(111) , 1993 .

[27]  G. Oskam,et al.  The influence of electrodeposited gold on the properties of III–V semiconductor electrodes—part 2. A study of the impedance due to gold-related surface states at p-GaAs electrodes , 1993 .

[28]  J. Schefold.  Impedance and intensity modulated photocurrent spectroscopy as complementary differential methods in photoelectrochemistry , 1992 .

[29]  H. G. Parks,et al.  Deposition Characteristics of Metal Contaminants from HF ‐ Based Process Solutions onto Silicon Wafer Surfaces , 1992 .

[30]  P. Allongue,et al.  In situ STM observations of the etching of n-Si(111) in NaOH solutions , 1992 .

[31]  D. Vanmaekelbergh,et al.  A Study of the Photoanodic Dissolution of CdS with Electrical and Opto‐electrical Impedance Spectroscopy , 1992 .

[32]  Carl A. Koval,et al.  Electron transfer at semiconductor electrode-liquid electrolyte interfaces , 1992 .

[33]  Y. Shacham-Diamand,et al.  On the Texture of Electroless Copper Films on Epitaxial Cu Seed Layers Grown on Si (100) and Si (111) Substrates , 1992 .

[34]  M. Meuris,et al.  The effect of metallic impurities on the dielectric breakdown of oxides and some new ways of avoiding them , 1991, International Electron Devices Meeting 1991 [Technical Digest].

[35]  R. Behm,et al.  Step-flow mechanism versus pit corrosion: scanning-tunneling microscopy observations on wet etching of Si(111) by HF solutions , 1991 .

[36]  Takashi Ito,et al.  Homogeneous hydrogen‐terminated Si(111) surface formed using aqueous HF solution and water , 1991 .

[37]  Weaver,et al.  Potential-dependent reconstruction at ordered Au(100)-aqueous interfaces as probed by atomic-resolution scanning tunneling microscopy. , 1991, Physical review letters.

[38]  G. Staikov,et al.  New aspects in underpotential-overpotential transitions in metal deposition processes , 1991 .

[39]  P. Hansma,et al.  Atomic-Resolution Electrochemistry with the Atomic Force Microscope: Copper Deposition on Gold , 1991, Science.

[40]  H. Gerischer.  The impact of semiconductors on the concepts of electrochemistry , 1990 .

[41]  D. Kolb,et al.  Subbandgap Photocurrent of a Ru-Covered n-GaAs|Acidic-Electrolyte Junction , 1990 .

[42]  Nichols,et al.  Atomic structure of Cu adlayers on Au(100) and Au(111) electrodes observed by in situ scanning tunneling microscopy. , 1990, Physical review letters.

[43]  P. Allongue,et al.  Metal electrodeposition on semiconductors , 1990 .

[44]  A. P. Nilov,et al.  Three-dimensional nucleation and growth under controlled potential , 1990 .

[45]  Chin-An Chang,et al.  Formation of copper silicides from Cu(100)/Si(100) and Cu(111)/Si(111) structures , 1990 .

[46]  N. Matsuda,et al.  Surface electronic structure of semiconductor ( p‐ and n‐Si) electrodes in electrolyte solution , 1990 .

[47]  P. Allongue,et al.  Semiconductor electrode modifications: influence on the state distribution at the interface , 1989 .

[48]  D. Vanmaekelbergh,et al.  Anodic stabilization and decomposition mechanisms in semiconductor (photo)-electrochemistry , 1989 .

[49]  P. Allongue,et al.  Semiconductor electrodes modified by electrodeposition of discontinuous metal films: Part I. Role of the film morphology , 1989 .

[50]  R. Huggins.  Solid State Ionics , 1989 .

[51]  M. Grundner,et al.  Reaction of water with hydrofluoric acid treated silicon(111) and (100) surfaces , 1989 .

[52]  P. Allongue,et al.  Charge Transfer Process at Illuminated Semiconductor/Electrolyte Junctions Modified by Electrodeposition of Microscopic Metal Grain , 1989 .

[53]  C. Ting,et al.  Selective Electroless Metal Deposition for Integrated Circuit Fabrication , 1989 .

[54]  J. Jacobs.  Note on a theory of three-dimensional electrochemical nucleation with diffusion-controlled growth , 1988 .

[55]  Y. Nakato,et al.  Effect of microscopic discontinuity of metal overlayers on the photovoltages in metal-coated semiconductor-liquid junction photoelectrochemical cells for efficient solar energy conversion , 1988 .

[56]  R. Memming,et al.  High barrier GaAs/metal schottky junctions produced by electrochemical metal deposition , 1987 .

[57]  P. Allongue,et al.  Schottky barrier formation of various metals on n‐GaAs (100) by electrochemical deposition , 1987 .

[58]  M. Sluyters-Rehbach,et al.  The theory of chronoamperometry for the investigation of electrocrystallization : Mathematical description and analysis in the case of diffusion-controlled growth , 1987 .

[59]  R. Sonnenfeld,et al.  Tunneling microscopy in an electrochemical cell: Images of Ag plating , 1986 .

[60]  Petr Zuman,et al.  Standard potentials in aqueous solutions , 1986 .

[61]  Chang,et al.  Unusually low surface-recombination velocity on silicon and germanium surfaces. , 1986, Physical review letters.

[62]  S. Wolf,et al.  Silicon Processing for the VLSI Era , 1986 .

[63]  N. Chandra,et al.  Semiconductor electrodes. 59. Photocurrent efficiencies at p-indium phosphide electrodes in aqueous solutions , 1985 .

[64]  Arnaud Etcheberry,et al.  An ellipsometric study of the electrochemical surface modifications of n-InP , 1985 .

[65]  A. Sammells,et al.  Investigation of electroreduction kinetics on modified p-InP in alkaline electrolyte , 1985 .

[66]  H. Yoneyama,et al.  The influence of preparation methods of platinized p-type indium phosphide on photoelectrochemical properties , 1985 .

[67]  R. Memming,et al.  Analysis of Trapping and Recombination Effects in Photoelectrochemical Processes at Semiconductor Electrodes: Investigations at n‐GaAs , 1985 .

[68]  Faraday Discuss , 1985 .

[69]  A. Hiraki,et al.  Formation of SiH bonds on the surface of microcrystalline silicon covered with SiOx by HF treatment , 1984 .

[70]  J. Bockris,et al.  Photoelectrocatalysis and electrocatalysis on p-silicon , 1984 .

[71]  J. Chazalviel,et al.  Surface states induced by metal atoms at the Si/electrolyte interface , 1983 .

[72]  P. S. D. Lin,et al.  Leakage and Breakdown in Thin Oxide Capacitors—Correlation with Decorated Stacking Faults , 1983 .

[73]  A. Milchev.  Role of the substrate state in electrochemical nucleation , 1983 .

[74]  B. Scharifker,et al.  Theoretical and experimental studies of multiple nucleation , 1983 .

[75]  B. Scharifker,et al.  Electrochemical nucleation: Part I. General considerations , 1982 .

[76]  G. Hills,et al.  Electrochemical nucleation: Part II. The electrodeposition of silver on vitreous carbon. , 1982 .

[77]  M. Y. Abyaneh.  Calculation of overlap for nucleation and three-dimensional growth of centres , 1982 .

[78]  H. Leidheiser.  Electrochemistry at semiconductor and oxidized metal electrodes , 1982 .

[79]  S. Rangarajan,et al.  Electrochemical phase formation (ECPF) and macrogrowth Part I. Hemispherical models , 1982 .

[80]  F. Cardon,et al.  Study of Stabilization and Surface Recombination on n ‐ GaP Photoelectrodes: Mechanisms and Interrelation , 1982 .

[81]  W. Bonner,et al.  Hydrogen-evolving semiconductor photocathodes: nature of the junction and function of the platinum group metal catalyst , 1982 .

[82]  M. Madou,et al.  Bulk and Surface Characterization of the Silicon Electrode , 1981 .

[83]  Ralph E. White,et al.  Comprehensive Treatise of Electrochemistry , 1981 .

[84]  L. D’asaro,et al.  Electroless Gold Plating on III–V Compound Crystals , 1980 .

[85]  E. Kaldis.  Current Topics in Materials Science , 1980 .

[86]  A. Heller,et al.  Surface modification in semiconductor liquid-junction cells , 1980 .

[87]  H. Grubin.  The physics of semiconductor devices , 1979, IEEE Journal of Quantum Electronics.

[88]  H. Gerischer,et al.  Electrolytic Deposition of Thin Metal Films on Semiconductor Substrates , 1977 .

[89]  S. Stoyanov.  On the atomistic theory of nucleation rate , 1973 .

[90]  R. E. Burgess.  Semiconductor Surfaces , 1967, Nature.

[91]  D. Walton,et al.  Nucleation of Vapor Deposits , 1962 .

[92]  J. F. Dewald.  The charge and potential distributions at the zinc oxide electrode , 1960 .

[93]  R. Becker,et al.  Kinetische Behandlung der Keimbildung in übersättigten Dämpfen , 1935 .

[94]  M. Muir.  Physical Chemistry , 1888, Nature.