Odors: appetizing or satiating? Development of appetite during odor exposure over time

Background:Exposure to palatable food odors influences appetite responses, either promoting or inhibiting food intake. Possibly, food odors are appetizing after a short exposure (of circa 1–3 min), but become satiating over time (circa 10–20 min).Objective:To investigate the effect of odor exposure on general appetite and sensory-specific appetite (SSA) over time.Design:In a cross-over study, 21 unrestrained women (age: 18–45 years; BMI: 18.5–25 kg m−2) were exposed for 20 min to eight different odor types: five food odors, two nonfood odors and no-odor. All odors were distributed in a test room at suprathreshold levels. General appetite, SSA and salivation were measured over time.Results:All food odors significantly increased general appetite and SSA, compared with the no-odor condition. The nonfood odors decreased general appetite. All effects did not change over time during odor exposure. Savory odors increased the appetite for savory foods, but decreased appetite for sweet foods, and vice versa after exposure to sweet odors. Neither food odors nor nonfood odors affected salivation.Conclusions:Palatable food odors were appetizing during and after odor exposure and did not become satiating over a 20-min period. Food odors had a large impact on SSA and a small impact on general appetite. Moreover, exposure to food odors increased the appetite for congruent foods, but decreased the appetite for incongruent foods. It may be hypothesized that, once the body is prepared for intake of a certain food with a particular macronutrient composition, it is unfavorable to consume foods that are very different from the cued food.

[1]  M. Feldman,et al.  Role of thought, sight, smell, and taste of food in the cephalic phase of gastric acid secretion in humans. , 1986, Gastroenterology.

[2]  R. D. de Wijk,et al.  Differential effects of exposure to ambient vanilla and citrus aromas on mood, arousal and food choice , 2012, Flavour.

[3]  S. Premakumari,et al.  Energy and protein requirements. , 1986, WHO chronicle.

[4]  D. Kareken,et al.  Correlation Between Ventromedial Prefrontal Cortex Activation to Food Aromas and Cue-Driven Eating: An fMRI Study , 2012, Chemosensory Perception.

[5]  E. Rolls,et al.  Olfactory Sensory-Specific Satiety in Humans , 1997, Physiology & Behavior.

[6]  Graham Finlayson,et al.  Is it possible to dissociate ‘liking’ and ‘wanting’ for foods in humans? A novel experimental procedure , 2007, Physiology & Behavior.

[7]  Edmund T. Rolls,et al.  Selective Attention to Affective Value Alters How the Brain Processes Olfactory Stimuli , 2008, Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience.

[8]  S. Jebb,et al.  Appetite control: methodological aspects of the evaluation of foods , 2010, Obesity reviews : an official journal of the International Association for the Study of Obesity.

[9]  N. Stroebele,et al.  Effect of ambience on food intake and food choice. , 2004, Nutrition.

[10]  T. Kral.  Effects on hunger and satiety, perceived portion size and pleasantness of taste of varying the portion size of foods: A brief review of selected studies , 2006, Appetite.

[11]  P. Smeets,et al.  Cephalic phase responses and appetite. , 2010, Nutrition reviews.

[12]  A. Jansen,et al.  On being led into temptation: "counterregulation" of dieters after smelling a "preload". , 1991, Addictive behaviors.

[13]  T Kobayakawa,et al.  Perception of everyday odors--correlation between intensity, familiarity and strength of hedonic judgement. , 1999, Chemical senses.

[14]  E. Rolls,et al.  How sensory properties of foods affect human feeding behavior , 1982, Physiology & Behavior.

[15]  E. Rolls,et al.  Pleasantness changes and food intake in a varied four-course meal , 1984, Appetite.

[16]  R. W. Visschers,et al.  New ways to understand aroma perception , 2008 .

[17]  G. Witcomb,et al.  Dietary restraint and heightened reactivity to food , 2004, Physiology & Behavior.

[18]  J. Brunstrom.  Associative learning and the control of human dietary behavior , 2007, Appetite.

[19]  R. Mattes,et al.  Nutritional implications of the cephalic-phase salivary response , 2000, Appetite.

[20]  J M Brunstrom,et al.  ‘I just can’t help myself’: effects of food-cue exposure in overweight and lean individuals , 2011, International Journal of Obesity.

[21]  C. S. Slotterback,et al.  Self-reported measures of appetite in relation to verbal cues about many foods , 2000 .

[22]  Jay Schulkin,et al.  Anticipatory physiological regulation in feeding biology: Cephalic phase responses , 2008, Appetite.

[23]  Martin R. Yeomans,et al.  Olfactory influences on appetite and satiety in humans , 2006, Physiology & Behavior.

[24]  A. Hirsch.  Weight Reduction Through Inhalation of Odorants , 1995 .

[25]  A. Drewnowski,et al.  Obesity and flavor perception: Multidimensional scaling of soft drinks , 1982, Appetite.

[26]  F. Smulders,et al.  Cephalic phase responses, craving and food intake in normal subjects , 2000, Appetite.

[27]  B. Rolls.  Sensory-specific satiety. , 2009, Nutrition reviews.

[28]  L. Nolan,et al.  The effects of sham feeding-induced sensory specific satiation and food variety on subsequent food intake in humans , 2009, Appetite.

[29]  J. Rodin,et al.  Stimulus-induced eating when satiated , 1989, Physiology & Behavior.

[30]  C. Nederkoorn,et al.  Overweight children overeat after exposure to food cues. , 2003, Eating behaviors.

[31]  D. Small,et al.  Differential Neural Responses Evoked by Orthonasal versus Retronasal Odorant Perception in Humans , 2005, Neuron.

[32]  M. Hetherington,et al.  Effects of chewing gum on short-term appetite regulation in moderately restrained eaters , 2011, Appetite.

[33]  J. Polivy,et al.  The specificity of restrained versus unrestrained eaters' responses to food cues: general desire to eat, or craving for the cued food? , 2003, Appetite.

[34]  Rutger C. M. E. Engels,et al.  Food intake in response to food-cue exposure. Examining the influence of duration of the cue exposure and trait impulsivity , 2012, Appetite.

[35]  J. Halford,et al.  CNS regulation of appetite , 2012, Neuropharmacology.

[36]  A. Canbay,et al.  Ghrelin, leptin and adiponectin as possible predictors of the hedonic value of odors , 2011, Regulatory Peptides.

[37]  E. Rolls,et al.  Variety in a meal enhances food intake in man , 1981, Physiology & Behavior.

[38]  E. Boyland,et al.  Short-term effects of chewing gum on snack intake and appetite , 2007, Appetite.

[39]  M. Westerterp-Plantenga,et al.  Effects of oral fat perception by modified sham feeding on energy expenditure, hormones and appetite profile in the postprandial state , 2008, British Journal of Nutrition.

[40]  Graham Finlayson,et al.  The role of implicit wanting in relation to explicit liking and wanting for food: Implications for appetite control , 2008, Appetite.

[41]  B. Tepper,et al.  Effects of learned flavor cues on single meal and daily food intake in humans , 1994, Physiology & Behavior.

[42]  Edmund T. Rolls,et al.  Sensory specific satiety in man , 1981, Physiology & Behavior.

[43]  M. Westerterp-Plantenga,et al.  Oral exposure and sensory-specific satiety , 2006, Physiology & Behavior.

[44]  A. Delamater.  Partial reinforcement and latent inhibition effects on stimulus–outcome associations in flavor preference conditioning , 2011, Learning & behavior.

[45]  F. Bosman,et al.  The relation between saliva flow after different stimulations and the perception of flavor and texture attributes in custard desserts , 2003, Physiology & Behavior.

[46]  T. V. Strien.  Nederlandse Vragenlijst voor eetgedrag (NVE). Handleiding [Dutch Eating Behaviour Questionnaire. Manual] , 2005 .

[47]  A. Sclafani,et al.  Post-ingestive positive controls of ingestive behavior , 2001, Appetite.

[48]  J. Brunstrom,et al.  How does food-cue exposure lead to larger meal sizes? , 2008, The British journal of nutrition.

[49]  S. Woods,et al.  The eating paradox: how we tolerate food. , 1991, Psychological review.

[50]  L. Karhunen,et al.  Inhibition of anticipatory salivation and craving in response to food stimuli , 1994, Physiology & Behavior.

[51]  D. Small,et al.  Separate signals for orthonasal vs. retronasal perception of food but not nonfood odors. , 2009, Behavioral neuroscience.

[52]  John D. Davis,et al.  The conditioned satiating effect of orosensory stimuli , 2009, Physiology & Behavior.

[53]  H. Berthoud,et al.  Neural and metabolic regulation of macronutrient intake and selection , 2012, Proceedings of the Nutrition Society.

[54]  J. Brunstrom,et al.  Effects of repeated exposure on liking for a reduced-energy-dense food. , 2010, The American journal of clinical nutrition.

[55]  P. Rogers,et al.  Breakdown of dietary restraint following mere exposure to food stimuli: interrelationships between restraint, hunger, salivation, and food intake. , 1989, Addictive behaviors.