Effectiveness of three visual media and two study formats in teaching concepts involving time, space, and motion

New approaches to education are stressing independent study and, concomitantly, flexibility in presenting materials for learning (cf., Bloom, 1968; Postlethwait, Novak, & Murray, 1969; Taber, Glaser, & Schaefer, 1965). In this context, two questions arise with respect to the use of media: 1) Within a flexible system such as an audio-tutorial systems approach in which it is possible to present information via several media, are there general guidelines for selection of specific media to present specific concepts? 2) Are some media more easily adopted and adapted for use in an independent study format? Lumsdaine (1962) contended that research in instructional