The osteochondral junction and its repair via bi-phasic tissue engineering scaffolds.

The osteochondral junction is the interface between bone and cartilage. Chondroid bone forms the intermediate between the two tissue types. Damage to the cartilage surface often results in degeneration of the subchondral region. This region is comprised of different cell types and varied composition of extracellular matrix. Hence, dual regeneration strategies have been investigated to simultaneously regenerate both tissue types. Bi-phasic constructs have been developed to deliver the necessary cells, growth factors, and mechanical support to facilitate regeneration. This review discusses the use of biphasic scaffolds to promote the repair, development, and function of the osteochondral junction.

[1]  D. Vorp,et al.  Development of a tissue-engineered vascular graft combining a biodegradable scaffold, muscle-derived stem cells and a rotational vacuum seeding technique. , 2008, Biomaterials.

[2]  Hwa-Chang Liu,et al.  Cartilage tissue engineering on the surface of a novel gelatin-calcium-phosphate biphasic scaffold in a double-chamber bioreactor. , 2004, Journal of biomedical materials research. Part B, Applied biomaterials.

[3]  Richard Tuli,et al.  Human mesenchymal progenitor cell-based tissue engineering of a single-unit osteochondral construct. , 2004, Tissue engineering.

[4]  G. Vunjak‐Novakovic.  The fundamentals of tissue engineering: scaffolds and bioreactors. , 2003, Novartis Foundation symposium.

[5]  S. Badylak,et al.  Identification of extractable growth factors from small intestinal submucosa , 1997, Journal of cellular biochemistry.

[6]  M Sittinger,et al.  Tissue engineering of biphasic joint cartilage transplants. , 1999, Biomaterials.

[7]  K. Hong,et al.  Osteoconduction at porous hydroxyapatite with various pore configurations. , 2000, Biomaterials.

[8]  G. Ateshian,et al.  Anatomically shaped osteochondral constructs for articular cartilage repair. , 2003, Journal of biomechanics.

[9]  Rui L Reis,et al.  Novel hydroxyapatite/chitosan bilayered scaffold for osteochondral tissue-engineering applications: Scaffold design and its performance when seeded with goat bone marrow stromal cells. , 2006, Biomaterials.

[10]  Hwa-Chang Liu,et al.  Tissue engineering-based cartilage repair with allogenous chondrocytes and gelatin-chondroitin-hyaluronan tri-copolymer scaffold: a porcine model assessed at 18, 24, and 36 weeks. , 2006, Biomaterials.

[11]  V. Goldberg,et al.  Repair of osteochondral defects with hyaluronan- and polyester-based scaffolds. , 2005, Osteoarthritis and cartilage.

[12]  Adel Alhadlaq,et al.  Adult Stem Cell Driven Genesis of Human-Shaped Articular Condyle , 2004, Annals of Biomedical Engineering.

[13]  M. Lizarbe,et al.  In vitro transformation of chondroprogenitor cells into osteoblasts and the formation of new membrane bone , 1983, The Anatomical record.

[14]  V. Goldberg,et al.  Biologic restoration of articular surfaces. , 1999, Instructional course lectures.

[15]  Koji Hattori,et al.  Cartilage regeneration using mesenchymal stem cells and a three-dimensional poly-lactic-glycolic acid (PLGA) scaffold. , 2005, Biomaterials.

[16]  Robert Langer,et al.  Visual Evidence of Acidic Environment Within Degrading Poly(lactic-co-glycolic acid) (PLGA) Microspheres , 2004, Pharmaceutical Research.

[17]  A I Caplan,et al.  Tissue-engineered fabrication of an osteochondral composite graft using rat bone marrow-derived mesenchymal stem cells. , 2001, Tissue engineering.

[18]  H. Mitani,et al.  Localization of types I, II and X collagen and osteocalcin in intramembranous, endochondral and chondroid bone of rats , 1997, Anatomy and Embryology.

[19]  T. Chandy,et al.  Chitosan--as a biomaterial. , 1990, Biomaterials, artificial cells, and artificial organs.

[20]  W. Richter,et al.  An in vivo study of a growth-factor enhanced, cell free, two-layered collagen-tricalcium phosphate in deep osteochondral defects. , 2006, Biomaterials.

[21]  Jeremy J Mao,et al.  Tissue-engineered osteochondral constructs in the shape of an articular condyle. , 2005, The Journal of bone and joint surgery. American volume.

[22]  C. Laurencin,et al.  Demineralized bone matrix gelatin as scaffold for osteochondral tissue engineering. , 2006, Biomaterials.

[23]  Christopher B. Rives,et al.  Plasmid delivery in vivo from porous tissue-engineering scaffolds: transgene expression and cellular transfection. , 2005, Molecular therapy : the journal of the American Society of Gene Therapy.

[24]  R. Altman,et al.  Preliminary observations of chondral abrasion in a canine model. , 1992, Annals of the rheumatic diseases.

[25]  S. Waldman,et al.  Effect of Biomechanical Conditioning on Cartilaginous Tissue Formation in Vitro , 2003, The Journal of bone and joint surgery. American volume.

[26]  J. Buckwalter.  Articular cartilage: injuries and potential for healing. , 1998, The Journal of orthopaedic and sports physical therapy.

[27]  A. Mikos,et al.  Review: tissue engineering for regeneration of articular cartilage. , 2000, Biomaterials.

[28]  Ivan Martin,et al.  Osteochondral tissue engineering. , 2007, Journal of biomechanics.

[29]  E B Hunziker,et al.  Articular cartilage repair: are the intrinsic biological constraints undermining this process insuperable? , 1999, Osteoarthritis and cartilage.

[30]  S. Weisbrode,et al.  Evaluation of the repair process of cartilage defects of the equine third carpal bone with and without subchondral bone perforation. , 1986, American journal of veterinary research.

[31]  Dietmar W Hutmacher,et al.  Evaluation of a hybrid scaffold/cell construct in repair of high-load-bearing osteochondral defects in rabbits. , 2006, Biomaterials.

[32]  R. Kandel,et al.  Effect of material geometry on cartilagenous tissue formation in vitro. , 2001, Journal of biomedical materials research.

[33]  B. Hall,et al.  All for one and one for all: condensations and the initiation of skeletal development. , 2000, BioEssays : news and reviews in molecular, cellular and developmental biology.

[34]  R Langer,et al.  Macroporous polymer foams by hydrocarbon templating. , 2000, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America.

[35]  R. Pergolizzi,et al.  Cartilage and Bone Regeneration Using Gene-Enhanced Tissue Engineering , 2000, Clinical orthopaedics and related research.

[36]  M. Pittenger,et al.  Multilineage potential of adult human mesenchymal stem cells. , 1999, Science.

[37]  E. Bywaters,et al.  The metabolism of joint tissues , 1937 .

[38]  Véronique Maquet,et al.  Tissue engineering of biphasic cartilage constructs using various biodegradable scaffolds: an in vitro study. , 2004, Biomaterials.

[39]  A. Göpferich,et al.  Mechanisms of polymer degradation and erosion. , 1996, Biomaterials.

[40]  D. Hutmacher,et al.  Scaffolds in tissue engineering bone and cartilage. , 2000, Biomaterials.

[41]  Arnold I Caplan,et al.  Repair of osteochondral defect with tissue-engineered two-phase composite material of injectable calcium phosphate and hyaluronan sponge. , 2002, Tissue engineering.

[42]  Junzo Tanaka,et al.  Preparation of a biphasic scaffold for osteochondral tissue engineering , 2006 .

[43]  Pauline M Doran,et al.  Tissue engineering of human cartilage and osteochondral composites using recirculation bioreactors. , 2005, Biomaterials.

[44]  P J Prendergast,et al.  Mechano-regulation of stem cell differentiation and tissue regeneration in osteochondral defects. , 2005, Journal of biomechanics.

[45]  Michael A. Slivka,et al.  Evaluation of multiphase implants for repair of focal osteochondral defects in goats. , 2000, Biomaterials.

[46]  K. Fujii,et al.  Use of a biphasic graft constructed with chondrocytes overlying a beta-tricalcium phosphate block in the treatment of rabbit osteochondral defects. , 2005, Tissue engineering.

[47]  E. Pellegrino,et al.  The hydroxyl content of calcified tissue mineral , 1971, Calcified Tissue Research.

[48]  R Langer,et al.  In vitro generation of osteochondral composites. , 2000, Biomaterials.

[49]  Alessandro Sannino,et al.  Fabricating tubular scaffolds with a radial pore size gradient by a spinning technique. , 2006, Biomaterials.

[50]  M. Klagsbrun,et al.  Cartilage to bone—Angiogenesis leads the way , 1999, Nature Medicine.

[51]  R. Honner,et al.  The nutritional pathways of articular cartilage. An autoradiographic study in rabbits using 35S injected intravenously. , 1971, The Journal of bone and joint surgery. American volume.

[52]  J H Brekke,et al.  Regeneration of articular cartilage--evaluation of osteochondral defect repair in the rabbit using multiphasic implants. , 2005, Osteoarthritis and cartilage.

[53]  G. Meachim,et al.  Repair of the joint surface from subarticular tissue in the rabbit knee. , 1971, Journal of anatomy.

[54]  B. Hall,et al.  Divide, accumulate, differentiate: cell condensation in skeletal development revisited. , 2004, The International journal of developmental biology.

[55]  D. Heinegård,et al.  Variations in the composition of bovine hip articular cartilage with distance from the articular surface. , 1981, The Biochemical journal.

[56]  L Claes,et al.  VEGF producing bone marrow stromal cells (BMSC) enhance vascularization and resorption of a natural coral bone substitute. , 2007, Bone.

[57]  B Derby,et al.  Novel collagen scaffolds with predefined internal morphology made by solid freeform fabrication. , 2003, Biomaterials.

[58]  Rui L. Reis,et al.  Bi-layered constructs based on poly(L-lactic acid) and starch for tissue engineering of osteochondral defects , 2008 .

[59]  Ralph Müller,et al.  In vivo behavior of calcium phosphate scaffolds with four different pore sizes. , 2006, Biomaterials.

[60]  J. Jansen,et al.  Degradable hydrogel scaffolds for in vivo delivery of single and dual growth factors in cartilage repair. , 2007, Osteoarthritis and cartilage.

[61]  A. Caplan,et al.  Osteochondrogenic potential of marrow mesenchymal progenitor cells exposed to TGF‐β1 or PDGF‐BB as assayed in vivo and in vitro , 1996, Journal of bone and mineral research : the official journal of the American Society for Bone and Mineral Research.

[62]  S. Waldman,et al.  Repair of osteochondral defects with biphasic cartilage-calcium polyphosphate constructs in a sheep model. , 2006, Biomaterials.

[63]  D. Kaplan,et al.  Porosity of 3D biomaterial scaffolds and osteogenesis. , 2005, Biomaterials.

[64]  M A Tracy,et al.  Factors affecting the degradation rate of poly(lactide-co-glycolide) microspheres in vivo and in vitro. , 1999, Biomaterials.

[65]  Paolo Giannoni,et al.  Tissue engineering and cell therapy of cartilage and bone. , 2003, Matrix biology : journal of the International Society for Matrix Biology.

[66]  Masanori Kikuchi,et al.  Biomimetic synthesis of bone-like nanocomposites using the self-organization mechanism of hydroxyapatite and collagen , 2004 .

[67]  S. O’Driscoll.  Current Concepts Review - The Healing and Regeneration of Articular Cartilage* , 1998 .

[68]  Napoleone Ferrara,et al.  VEGF couples hypertrophic cartilage remodeling, ossification and angiogenesis during endochondral bone formation , 1999, Nature Medicine.

[69]  G Rau,et al.  Control of pore structure and size in freeze-dried collagen sponges. , 2001, Journal of biomedical materials research.

[70]  L. Lohmander,et al.  Tissue engineering of cartilage: do we need it, can we do it, is it good and can we prove it? , 2003, Novartis Foundation symposium.

[71]  A I Caplan,et al.  Repair of bone defects with marrow cells and porous ceramic. Experiments in rats. , 1989, Acta orthopaedica Scandinavica.

[72]  R. Müller,et al.  Exogenously regulated stem cell-mediated gene therapy for bone regeneration. , 2001, Molecular therapy : the journal of the American Society of Gene Therapy.

[73]  A. Pandit,et al.  Scaffold with a natural mesh-like architecture: isolation, structural, and in vitro characterization. , 2007, Biomacromolecules.

[74]  S. Teoh,et al.  Scaffold design and in vitro study of osteochondral coculture in a three-dimensional porous polycaprolactone scaffold fabricated by fused deposition modeling. , 2003, Tissue engineering.

[75]  G. Nelsestuen,et al.  The mode of action of vitamin K. Isolation of a peptide containing the vitamin K-dependent portion of prothrombin. , 1973, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America.

[76]  Pauline M Doran,et al.  Tissue engineering of human cartilage in bioreactors using single and composite cell-seeded scaffolds. , 2005, Biotechnology and bioengineering.

[77]  Scott C. Brown,et al.  A three-dimensional osteochondral composite scaffold for articular cartilage repair. , 2002, Biomaterials.

[78]  Scott J Hollister,et al.  Engineered osteochondral grafts using biphasic composite solid free-form fabricated scaffolds. , 2004, Tissue engineering.

[79]  M J Glimcher,et al.  Cell origin and differentiation in the repair of full-thickness defects of articular cartilage. , 1993, The Journal of bone and joint surgery. American volume.

[80]  Alan Grodzinsky,et al.  Tissue-engineered composites for the repair of large osteochondral defects. , 2002, Arthritis and rheumatism.

[81]  Kyriacos A. Athanasiou,et al.  The effects of porosity on in vitro degradation of polylactic acid- polyglycolic acid implants used in repair of articular cartilage , 1998 .

[82]  C B Sledge,et al.  Matrix collagen type and pore size influence behaviour of seeded canine chondrocytes. , 1997, Biomaterials.

[83]  C. ANDREW L. BASSETT,et al.  Influence of Oxygen Concentration and Mechanical Factors on Differentiation of Connective Tissues in vitro , 1961, Nature.

[84]  T. Miyata,et al.  Collagen as a biomaterial. , 1974, Annual review of biophysics and bioengineering.

[85]  Christina Eckhardt,et al.  Vascular Endothelial Growth Factor Gene‐Activated Matrix (VEGF165‐GAM) Enhances Osteogenesis and Angiogenesis in Large Segmental Bone Defects , 2005, Journal of bone and mineral research : the official journal of the American Society for Bone and Mineral Research.