The Logic of Memory Representations

Publisher Summary This chapter reviews the recent developments in research on the nature of stored mnemonic information. It discusses the properties of the memory traces, and specifically the problems faced while studying memory traces. After an introduction of memory representatives, the chapter reviews the methods that have been used in attempts to describe memory traces. The chapter primarily focuses on the rules of inference on which investigators have relied in bridging the gap between experimental operations and empirical observations, on the one hand, and the assumed nature and characteristics of the hypothetical memory traces on the other. Some of the general aims of trace theory in the light of the accomplishments and shortcomings of the research to date are discussed and after briefly considering the relation between trace information and the process of retrieval, the taxonomy of trace attributes and the necessity of process models are described.

[1]  D. Chambers,et al.  All-or-none learning of attributes. , 1966, Journal of experimental psychology.

[2]  W. Kintsch,et al.  Homophones and synonyms in short-term memory. , 1969 .

[3]  A D Baddeley,et al.  Short-term Memory for Word Sequences as a Function of Acoustic, Semantic and Formal Similarity , 1966, The Quarterly journal of experimental psychology.

[4]  D. Bem.  Self-Perception Theory , 1972 .

[5]  D. Wickens,et al.  Proactive inhibition and item similarity in short-term memory , 1963 .

[6]  S. Madigan,et al.  Retention of item attributes in free recall , 1972 .

[7]  T. O. Nelson,et al.  Acoustic savings for items forgotten from long-term memory. , 1972, Journal of experimental psychology.

[8]  M. Laurence.  Role of Homophones in Transfer Learning. , 1970 .

[9]  Michael I. Posner,et al.  Abstraction and The Process of Recognition , 1970 .

[10]  H. Loess,et al.  Short-term memory, word class, and sequence of items. , 1967, Journal of experimental psychology.

[11]  N. Frost,et al.  Clustering by visual shape in the free recall of pictorial stimuli. , 1971, Journal of experimental psychology.

[12]  E. Tulving,et al.  Associative encoding and retrieval: Weak and strong cues. , 1970 .

[13]  Stephen M. Kosslyn,et al.  The Role of Imagery in Sentence Memory: A Developmental Study. , 1974 .

[14]  A. Paivio.  Mental imagery in associative learning and memory , 1969 .

[15]  John D. Bransford,et al.  The abstraction of linguistic ideas , 1971 .

[16]  H. P. Bahrick.  Measurement of memory by prompted recall. , 1969 .

[17]  Paul A. Kolers,et al.  Remembering operations , 1973, Memory & cognition.

[18]  S. Sternberg.  Memory-scanning: mental processes revealed by reaction-time experiments. , 1969, American scientist.

[19]  H. P. Bahrick,et al.  Independence of verbal and visual codes of the same stimuli. , 1971, Journal of experimental psychology.

[20]  Glen A. Raser.  Recoding of semantic and acoustic information in short-term memory , 1972 .

[21]  D. Norman.  Toward a theory of memory and attention. , 1968 .

[22]  M. Knapp,et al.  Association, synonymity, and directionality in false recognition. , 1968, Journal of experimental psychology.

[23]  Gordon H. Bower,et al.  A MULTICOMPONENT THEORY OF THE MEMORY TRACE , 1967 .

[24]  Richard C. Anderson.  Semantic organization and retrieval of information from sentences , 1972 .

[25]  Larry L. Jacoby,et al.  Semantic Versus Acoustic Coding: Retention and Conditions of Organization. , 1973 .

[26]  L. Light.  Homonyms and synonyms as retrieval cues. , 1972 .

[27]  B. Murdock,et al.  Modality effects in free recall , 1969 .

[28]  M. Glanzer,et al.  Two storage mechanisms in free recall , 1966 .

[29]  C. Perfetti,et al.  Encoding task and recognition memory: The importance of semantic encoding. , 1973 .

[30]  N. Frost,et al.  Encoding and retrieval in visual memory tasks. , 1972, Journal of experimental psychology.

[31]  T. S. Hyde,et al.  Differential effects of incidental tasks on the organization of recall of a list of highly associated words. , 1969 .

[32]  J. Sachs.  Recognition memory for syntactic and semantic aspects of connected discourse , 1967 .

[33]  M. Eagle,et al.  The effect of level of attention upon “phonetic” recognition errors , 1967 .

[34]  Douglas L. Hintzman,et al.  Repetition and memory: Evidence for a multiple-trace hypothesis. , 1971 .

[35]  M. Posner,et al.  Retention of visual and name codes of single letters. , 1969, Journal of experimental psychology.

[36]  A. Paivio,et al.  Concreteness and imagery in sentence meaning. , 1969 .

[37]  Douglas L. Nelson,et al.  Relative effectiveness of rhymes and synonyms as retrieval cues. , 1974 .

[38]  E. Tulving,et al.  Episodic and semantic memory , 1972 .

[39]  Samuel Fillenbaum,et al.  Words as feature complexes: False recognition of antonyms and synonyms. , 1969 .

[40]  L. R. Peterson,et al.  The effect of repeated occurrences on judgments of recency , 1969 .

[41]  F. Craik,et al.  Levels of Pro-cessing: A Framework for Memory Research , 1975 .

[42]  M. Manosevitz.  High-Speed Scanning in Human Memory , .

[43]  Richard C. Atkinson,et al.  Human Memory: A Proposed System and its Control Processes , 1968, Psychology of Learning and Motivation.

[44]  B. Underwood,et al.  Proactive inhibition in short-term retention of single items , 1962 .

[45]  Benton J. Underwood,et al.  Developmental Changes in Memory Attributes. , 1970 .

[46]  Fergus I. M. Craik,et al.  A “LEVELS OF ANALYSIS” VIEW OF MEMORY , 1973 .

[47]  John Morton,et al.  Repeated items and decay in memory , 1968 .

[48]  B. Underwood.  FALSE RECOGNITION PRODUCED BY IMPLICIT VERBAL RESPONSES. , 1965, Journal of experimental psychology.

[49]  B Tversky,et al.  Eye fixations in prediction of recognition and recall , 1974, Memory & cognition.

[50]  A D Baddeley,et al.  The relation between long-term and short-term memory. , 1971, British medical bulletin.

[51]  L L Light,et al.  Memory for modality of presentation: Within-modality discrimination , 1973, Memory & cognition.

[52]  Richard C. Atkinson,et al.  Recognition memory as influenced by differential attention to semantic and acoustic properties of words , 1970 .

[53]  Maureen E. O'Neill,et al.  Retrieval Cues and Release from Proactive Inhibition. , 1976 .

[54]  R. Conrad,et al.  Acoustic confusions in immediate memory. , 1964 .

[55]  Endel Tulving,et al.  Encoding specificity and retrieval processes in episodic memory. , 1973 .

[56]  S. Sternberg.  High-Speed Scanning in Human Memory , 1966, Science.

[57]  K. Kirsner,et al.  Modality differences in recognition memory for words and their attributes. , 1974, Journal of experimental psychology.

[58]  S. Madigan,et al.  Intraserial repetition and coding processes in free recall , 1969 .

[59]  M. Anisfeld,et al.  False recognition of adjective-noun phrases. , 1970 .

[60]  Harvey G. Shulman,et al.  Encoding and retention of semantic and phonemic information in short-term memory , 1970 .

[61]  M S Gazzaniga,et al.  One brain--two minds? , 1972, American scientist.

[62]  William K. Estes,et al.  Phonemic Coding and Rehearsal in Short-Term Memory for Letter Strings. , 1973 .

[63]  S. E. Clark,et al.  Osgood dimensions as an encoding class in short-term memory , 1968 .

[64]  Delos D. Wickens,et al.  Encoding Categories of Words: An Empirical Approach to Meaning. , 1970 .

[65]  A. Paivio,et al.  Picture superiority in free recall: Imagery or dual coding? , 1973 .

[66]  E. Tulving,et al.  Availability versus accessibility of information in memory for words , 1966 .

[67]  Zenon W. Pylyshyn,et al.  What the Mind’s Eye Tells the Mind’s Brain: A Critique of Mental Imagery , 1973 .

[68]  Delos D. Wickens,et al.  Proactive interference and language change in short-term memory , 1971 .

[69]  Endel Tulving,et al.  Continuity between recall and recognition. , 1973 .

[70]  Peter Herriot,et al.  Attributes of Memory , 1974 .

[71]  S W Keele,et al.  Decay of Visual Information from a Single Letter , 1967, Science.

[72]  E. Ghatala,et al.  Effectiveness of Acoustic and Conceptual Retrieval Cues in Memory for Words at Two Grade Levels. Technical Report No. 220. , 1972 .

[73]  A. Bregman.  Forgetting curves with semantic, phonetic, graphic, and contiguity cues. , 1968 .

[74]  Murdock,et al.  The serial position effect of free recall , 1962 .

[75]  W. A. Wickelgren,et al.  ACOUSTIC SIMILARITY AND INTRUSION ERRORS IN SHORT-TERM MEMORY. , 1965, Journal of experimental psychology.

[76]  D. L. Hintzman.  Articulatory coding in short-term memory , 1967 .

[77]  Michael I. Posner,et al.  Subtractive method applied to separation of visual and name components of multiletter arrays , 1969 .

[78]  Donald A. Walter.  The Effect of Sentence Context on the Stability of Phonemic and Semantic Memory Dimensions. , 1973 .

[79]  J. Jenkins,et al.  The effects of cued orienting tasks on the free recall of words , 1973 .

[80]  Walter Kintsch,et al.  Recognition Memory in Bilingual Subjects. , 1970 .

[81]  B. L. Lively.  Speed/accuracy trade off and practice as determinants of stage durations in a memory-search task. , 1972 .

[82]  M. T. Turvey,et al.  Polarity on the semantic differential and release from proactive interference in short-term memory , 1970 .

[83]  Peter A. Tucker,et al.  Primary Memory , 1965, Encyclopedia of Database Systems.