Hot-water extractable carbon in soils: a sensitive measurement for determining impacts of fertilisation, grazing and cultivation

Using pre-established trial sites on allophanic soils, we investigated the impacts of long to medium-term pastoral management practices, such as fertilisation and grazing intensity, on a range of soil biological and biochemical properties; hot water-extractable C (HWC), water-soluble C (WSC), hot-water extractable total carbohydrates, microbial biomass-C and N and mineralisable N. These properties were examined for their usefulness as soil quality indicators responding to changes in the rhizosphere caused by management practices. Adjacent cropping, market garden and native bush sites located on similar soil types were included to determine the changes in soil biological and biochemical properties resulting from changes in land use. The seasonal variability of HWC and its relationship with other labile fractions of soil organic matter was also examined. Microbial biomass-C, mineralisable N and extractable total carbohydrates showed promise in differentiating treatment and land use effects. However, HWC was one of the most sensitive and consistent indicators examined at 52 different sites. The impact of different land uses on the amounts of HWC in the same soil type was far greater than that was observed for the soil organic carbon. The average values of HWC for soil under different land use were: native (4000 μg C g−1 soil), sheep/beef pastures (3400), dairy pastures (3000), cropping (1000) and market gardening soils (850). HWC was also sensitive to differences within an ecosystem, e.g. effects of grazing intensities and effects of N or P fertilisers on pastures. The sheep and beef/cattle grazed pastures always had higher amounts of HWC than the intensively grazed dairy pastures. Nitrogen fertiliser application (200 and 400 kg N ha−1 yr−1) over the previous 5 yr had significant (P<0.001) negative impacts on HWC and other soil microbial properties. In contrast, long-term application of P fertilisers had a significant (P<0.001) positive effect on the HWC levels in pastoral soils. In the case of long-term P trials, HWC increased even though no increase in the total soil carbon pool was detected. HWC was positively correlated with soil microbial biomass-C (R2=0.84), microbial nitrogen (R2=0.72), mineralisable N (R2=0.86), and total carbohydrates (R2=0.88). All these correlations were significant at P<0.001 level of significance. The HWC was also positively correlated with WSC and total organic C. However, these correlations were poorer than those found for other soil parameters. Most of these measurements have been actively promoted as key indicators of soil quality. Given the strong correlations between HWC and other biochemical measurements, HWC could be used as an integrated measure of soil quality. When HWC is extracted, other pools of labile nutrients are also extracted along with C. Therefore it is suggested that decline in HWC would also indicate a decline in other labile organic pools of nutrients such as nitrogen, sulphur and phosphorus. About 40–50% of the C in the HWC extract was present as carbohydrates.