The neurobiology of sleep.

The neurobiology of sleep and narcolepsy is reviewed. Non-rapid eye movement (NREM) sleep is generated by neurons in the preoptic region of the hypothalamus and adjacent basal forebrain. Lesions in these regions cause insomnia. Stimulation of these regions rapidly produces sleep onset. The key brain structure for generating REM sleep is the pons and adjacent portions of the midbrain. Damage to the pons and/or caudal midbrain can cause abnormalities in REM sleep. The persistent sleepiness of narcolepsy is a result of a loss of hypocretin function.

[1]  J. Siegel,et al.  Neuronal activity in narcolepsy: identification of cataplexy-related cells in the medial medulla. , 1991, Science.

[2]  J. Siegel,et al.  Medullary regions mediating atonia , 1988, The Journal of neuroscience : the official journal of the Society for Neuroscience.

[3]  J. Villablanca,et al.  Behavioral and polygraphic study of "sleep" and "wakefulness" in chronic decerebrate cats. , 1966, Electroencephalography and clinical neurophysiology.

[4]  J. Siegel,et al.  Behavioral states in the chronic medullary and midpontine cat. , 1986, Electroencephalography and clinical neurophysiology.

[5]  Priyattam J Shiromani,et al.  Effects of Saporin-Induced Lesions of Three Arousal Populations on Daily Levels of Sleep and Wake , 2007, The Journal of Neuroscience.

[6]  J. Siegel.  Behavioral functions of the reticular formation , 1979, Brain Research Reviews.

[7]  Y. Lai,et al.  Excitatory effects of hypocretin-1 (orexin-A) in the trigeminal motor nucleus are reversed by NMDA antagonism. , 2003, Journal of neurophysiology.

[8]  Y. Lai,et al.  Neurotoxic N-methyl-d-aspartate lesion of the ventral midbrain and mesopontine junction alters sleep–wake organization , 1999, Neuroscience.

[9]  J. Siegel,et al.  Locus coeruleus neurons: cessation of activity during cataplexy , 1999, Neuroscience.

[10]  Damien Gervasoni,et al.  The rat ponto‐medullary network responsible for paradoxical sleep onset and maintenance: a combined microinjection and functional neuroanatomical study , 2002, The European journal of neuroscience.

[11]  R. Staba,et al.  Monoamines and sleep: microdialysis findings in pons and amygdala , 2000, Brain Research.

[12]  P. Luppi,et al.  Cholinergic and noncholinergic brainstem neurons expressing Fos after paradoxical (REM) sleep deprivation and recovery , 2005, European Journal of Neuroscience.

[13]  W. Nauta,et al.  Hypothalamic regulation of sleep in rats; an experimental study. , 1946 .

[14]  Jerome M. Siegel,et al.  The REM Sleep-Memory Consolidation Hypothesis , 2001, Science.

[15]  W. Dement,et al.  The occurrence of low voltage, fast, electroencephalogram patterns during behavioral sleep in the cat. , 1958, Electroencephalography and clinical neurophysiology.

[16]  J. Siegel,et al.  Narcolepsy A Key Role for Hypocretins (Orexins) , 1999, Cell.

[17]  Jerome M. Siegel,et al.  Pontine regulation of REM sleep components in cats: integrity of the pedunculopontine tegmentum (PPT) is important for phasic events but unnecessary for atonia during REM sleep , 1992, Brain Research.

[18]  H. Onoe,et al.  Kainate receptors: a novel mechanism in paradoxical (REM) sleep generation. , 1995, Neuroreport.

[19]  D. Kripke.  Sleep and mortality. , 2003, Psychosomatic medicine.

[20]  Y. Lai,et al.  Muscle tone suppression and stepping produced by stimulation of midbrain and rostral pontine reticular formation , 1990, The Journal of neuroscience : the official journal of the Society for Neuroscience.

[21]  J. Siegel.  Hypocretin (orexin): role in normal behavior and neuropathology. , 2004, Annual review of psychology.

[22]  Y. Lai,et al.  Enhancement of acetylcholine release during REM sleep in the caudomedial medulla as measured by in vivo microdialysis , 1992, Brain Research.

[23]  Robert W. McCarley,et al.  Effects of Sleep on Wake-Induced c-fos Expression , 1997, The Journal of Neuroscience.

[24]  E. Mignot,et al.  Heterozygosity at the canarc-1 locus can confer susceptibility for narcolepsy: induction of cataplexy in heterozygous asymptomatic dogs after administration of a combination of drugs acting on monoaminergic and cholinergic systems , 1993, The Journal of neuroscience : the official journal of the Society for Neuroscience.

[25]  C. Saper,et al.  A putative flip–flop switch for control of REM sleep , 2006, Nature.

[26]  M. Hirshkowitz,et al.  Sleep-related erections: clinical perspectives and neural mechanisms. , 2005, Sleep medicine reviews.

[27]  Y. Lai,et al.  Cardiovascular and muscle tone changes produced by microinjection of cholinergic and glutamatergic agonists in dorsolateral pons and medial medulla , 1990, Brain Research.

[28]  Y. Lai,et al.  Brainstem projections to the ventromedial medulla in cat: Retrograde transport horseradish peroxidase and immunohistochemical studies , 1999, The Journal of comparative neurology.

[29]  T. Kodama,et al.  Enhancement of acetylcholine release during paradoxical sleep in the dorsal tegmental field of the cat brain stem , 1990, Neuroscience Letters.

[30]  F. Morales,et al.  Chapter 12 – Control of Motoneurons during Sleep , 2005 .

[31]  J. Siegel,et al.  GABA release in the locus coeruleus as a function of sleep/wake state , 1997, Neuroscience.

[32]  Dennis McGinty,et al.  Hypothalamic regulation of sleep and arousal. , 2003, Frontiers in bioscience : a journal and virtual library.

[33]  P. Torterolo,et al.  GABAergic neurons of the cat dorsal raphe nucleus express c-fos during carbachol-induced active sleep , 2000, Brain Research.

[34]  M. Sterman,et al.  Forebrain inhibitory mechanisms: sleep patterns induced by basal forebrain stimulation in the behaving cat. , 1962, Experimental neurology.

[35]  D. McCormick,et al.  Properties of a hyperpolarization‐activated cation current and its role in rhythmic oscillation in thalamic relay neurones. , 1990, The Journal of physiology.

[36]  W. Fishbein,et al.  Continuous pontine cholinergic microinfusion via mini-pump induces sustained alterations in rapid eye movement (REM) sleep , 1986, Pharmacology Biochemistry and Behavior.

[37]  Jerome M. Siegel,et al.  Behavioral Correlates of Activity in Identified Hypocretin/Orexin Neurons , 2005, Neuron.

[38]  R. Horner,et al.  Inhibition of serotonergic medullary raphe obscurus neurons suppresses genioglossus and diaphragm activities in anesthetized but not conscious rats. , 2006, Journal of applied physiology.

[39]  A. N. van den Pol,et al.  Presynaptic and Postsynaptic Actions and Modulation of Neuroendocrine Neurons by a New Hypothalamic Peptide, Hypocretin/Orexin , 1998, The Journal of Neuroscience.

[40]  H. Steenland,et al.  Endogenous excitatory drive modulating respiratory muscle activity across sleep-wake states. , 2006, American journal of respiratory and critical care medicine.

[41]  O. Pompeiano,et al.  Tonic inhibition of dorsal pontine neurons during the postural atonia produced by an anticholinesterase in the decerebrate cat. , 1976, Archives italiennes de biologie.

[42]  J. Gnadt,et al.  Cholinergic brainstem mechanisms of REM sleep in the rat , 1986, Brain Research.

[43]  M. Steriade.  Sleep, epilepsy and thalamic reticular inhibitory neurons , 2005, Trends in Neurosciences.

[44]  Morrison Ar,et al.  The biological significance of PGO spikes in the sleeping cat. , 1975 .

[45]  W. Nauta,et al.  Hypothalamic regulation of sleep in rats; an experimental study. , 1946, Journal of neurophysiology.

[46]  Ronald M. Harper,et al.  Dorsal raphe neurons: depression of firing during sleep in cats , 1976, Brain Research.

[47]  M. Ferrara,et al.  Sleep deprivation and phasic activity of REM sleep: independence of middle-ear muscle activity from rapid eye movements. , 2000, Sleep.

[48]  Y. Lai,et al.  Inactivation of the pons blocks medullary-induced muscle tone suppression in the decerebrate cat. , 1998, Sleep.

[49]  D. McCormick.  Cholinergic and noradrenergic modulation of thalamocortical processing , 1989, Trends in Neurosciences.

[50]  J. Siegel,et al.  The neurotransmitters of sleep. , 2004, The Journal of clinical psychiatry.

[51]  M. Jouvet,et al.  Mapping of cholinoceptive brainstem structures responsible for the generation of paradoxical sleep in the cat. , 1989, Archives italiennes de biologie.

[52]  Barbara E. Jones,et al.  Neurotoxic lesions of the dorsolateral pontomesencephalic tegmentum-cholinergic cell area in the cat. II. Effects upon sleep-waking states , 1988, Brain Research.

[53]  M. Jalfre,et al.  Drugs and PGO waves in the lateral geniculate body of the curarized cat. IV. The effects of acetylcholine, GABA and benzodiazepines on PGO wave activity. , 1976, Archives internationales de pharmacodynamie et de therapie.

[54]  M. Matsuzaki.  Differential effects of sodium butyrate and physostigmine upon the activities of para-sleep in acute brain stem preparations. , 1969, Brain research.

[55]  J. Siegel,et al.  Pontine reticular formation neurons: relationship of discharge to motor activity. , 1977, Science.

[56]  G Oakson,et al.  Different cellular types in mesopontine cholinergic nuclei related to ponto-geniculo-occipital waves , 1990, The Journal of neuroscience : the official journal of the Society for Neuroscience.

[57]  Larry W. Swanson,et al.  Brain Maps: Structure of the Rat Brain , 1992 .

[58]  Jerome M. Siegel,et al.  Sleep and waking activity of pontine gigantocellular field neurons , 1977, Experimental Neurology.

[59]  H. Onoe,et al.  A potent non‐monoaminergic paradoxical sleep inhibitory system: a reverse microdialysis and single‐unit recording study , 2006, The European journal of neuroscience.

[60]  J. Siegel,et al.  An Endogenous Glutamatergic Drive onto Somatic Motoneurons Contributes to the Stereotypical Pattern of Muscle Tone across the Sleep–Wake Cycle , 2008, The Journal of Neuroscience.

[61]  B. Hars,et al.  Pontine microinjection of carbachol does not reliably enhance paradoxical sleep in rats. , 1997, Sleep.

[62]  M. Jouvet,et al.  [Research on the neural structures and responsible mechanisms in different phases of physiological sleep]. , 1962, Archives italiennes de biologie.

[63]  B. Kocsis,et al.  Prominent Burst Firing of Dopaminergic Neurons in the Ventral Tegmental Area during Paradoxical Sleep , 2007, Neuropsychopharmacology.

[64]  Ming-Fung Wu,et al.  Release of Hypocretin (Orexin) during Waking and Sleep States , 2002, The Journal of Neuroscience.

[65]  Y. Lai,et al.  Changes in Monoamine Release in the Ventral Horn and Hypoglossal Nucleus Linked to Pontine Inhibition of Muscle Tone: An In Vivo Microdialysis Study , 2001, The Journal of Neuroscience.

[66]  M. Jouvet,et al.  Are the gigantocellular tegmental field neurons responsible for paradoxical sleep? , 1981, Brain Research.

[67]  Michael Aldrich,et al.  Reduced Number of Hypocretin Neurons in Human Narcolepsy , 2000, Neuron.

[68]  Feng Xu,et al.  Homeostatic Regulation of Sleep: A Role for Preoptic Area Neurons , 2006, The Journal of Neuroscience.

[69]  P. L. Parmeggiani,et al.  Thermoregulation and sleep. , 2003, Frontiers in bioscience : a journal and virtual library.

[70]  Y. Lai,et al.  Changes in Inhibitory Amino Acid Release Linked to Pontine-Induced Atonia: An In Vivo Microdialysis Study , 2003, The Journal of Neuroscience.

[71]  Sebastiaan Overeem,et al.  A mutation in a case of early onset narcolepsy and a generalized absence of hypocretin peptides in human narcoleptic brains , 2000, Nature Medicine.

[72]  T. Sejnowski,et al.  Thalamocortical oscillations in the sleeping and aroused brain. , 1993, Science.

[73]  Ming-Fung Wu,et al.  Cataplexy-Active Neurons in the Hypothalamus Implications for the Role of Histamine in Sleep and Waking Behavior , 2004, Neuron.

[74]  C. Holmes,et al.  Distribution of cholinergic, gabaergic and serotonergic neurons in the medial medullary reticular formation and their projections studied by cytotoxic lesions in the cat , 1994, Neuroscience.

[75]  R. McCarley,et al.  Cholinergic activation of medial pontine reticular formation neurons in vitro , 1989, Brain Research.

[76]  Y. Katayama,et al.  Behavioral evidence for a cholinoceptive pontine inhibitory area: Descending control of spinal motor output and sensory input , 1984, Brain Research.

[77]  Y. Lai,et al.  Neurotoxic lesions at the ventral mesopontine junction change sleep time and muscle activity during sleep: An animal model of motor disorders in sleep , 2008, Neuroscience.

[78]  S. Datta,et al.  Single cell activity patterns of pedunculopontine tegmentum neurons across the sleep‐wake cycle in the freely moving rats , 2002, Journal of neuroscience research.

[79]  Y. Lai,et al.  Glutamatergic and cholinergic projections to the pontine inhibitory area identified with horseradish peroxidase retrograde transport and immunohistochemistry , 1993, The Journal of comparative neurology.

[80]  J. Siegel,et al.  Rostral brainstem contributes to medullary inhibition of muscle tone , 1983, Brain Research.

[81]  F. D. de Waal,et al.  Coping with crowding. , 2000, Scientific American.

[82]  J. Siegel,et al.  Systemic administration of hypocretin-1 reduces cataplexy and normalizes sleep and waking durations in narcoleptic dogs. , 2000, Sleep research online : SRO.

[83]  J. Siegel,et al.  Cessation of activity in red nucleus neurons during stimulation of the medial medulla in decerebrate rats , 2002, The Journal of physiology.

[84]  Paul Antoine Salin,et al.  A role of melanin-concentrating hormone producing neurons in the central regulation of paradoxical sleep , 2003, BMC Neuroscience.

[85]  J. Siegel,et al.  Intravenously administered hypocretin‐1 alters brain amino acid release: an in vivo microdialysis study in rats , 2003, The Journal of physiology.

[86]  R. Horner,et al.  Microdialysis perfusion of 5‐HT into hypoglossal motor nucleus differentially modulates genioglossus activity across natural sleep‐wake states in rats , 2001, The Journal of physiology.

[87]  D. C. Brooks,et al.  An analysis of the effect of reserpine upon ponto-geniculo-ooccipital wave activity in the cat. , 1972, Neuropharmacology.

[88]  A. Morrison,et al.  Different behaviors during paradoxical sleep without atonia depend on pontine lesion site , 1982, Brain Research.

[89]  J. Peever,et al.  Glycinergic and GABAA-Mediated Inhibition of Somatic Motoneurons Does Not Mediate Rapid Eye Movement Sleep Motor Atonia , 2008, The Journal of Neuroscience.

[90]  P. Luppi,et al.  Localization of the neurons active during paradoxical (REM) sleep and projecting to the locus coeruleus noradrenergic neurons in the rat , 2006, The Journal of comparative neurology.

[91]  D. Jenden,et al.  A CHOLINERGIC MECHANISM IN THE BRAINSTEM RETICULAR FORMATION: INDUCTION OF PARADOXICAL SLEEP. , 1964, International journal of neuropharmacology.

[92]  G Oakson,et al.  Neuronal activities in brain-stem cholinergic nuclei related to tonic activation processes in thalamocortical systems , 1990, The Journal of neuroscience : the official journal of the Society for Neuroscience.

[93]  J. Hobson,et al.  From synapse to gene product: prolonged expression of c-fos induced by a single microinjection of carbachol in the pontomesencephalic tegmentum. , 2005, Brain research. Molecular brain research.

[94]  S. Overeem,et al.  Hypocretin (orexin) loss in Parkinson's disease. , 2007, Brain : a journal of neurology.

[95]  J. Siegel,et al.  Behavioral organization of reticular formation: studies in the unrestrained cat. I. Cells related to axial, limb, eye, and other movements. , 1983, Journal of neurophysiology.

[96]  S. Auerbach,et al.  Activation of phasic pontine‐wave generator in the rat: a mechanism for expression of plasticity‐related genes and proteins in the dorsal hippocampus and amygdala , 2008, The European journal of neuroscience.

[97]  K. Kaitin.  Preoptic area unit activity during sleep and wakefulness in the cat , 1984, Experimental Neurology.

[98]  C. Chiu,et al.  Activity of medial mesopontine units during cataplexy and sleep-waking states in the narcoleptic dog , 1992, The Journal of neuroscience : the official journal of the Society for Neuroscience.

[99]  T. Curran,et al.  Expression of c-fos protein in brain: metabolic mapping at the cellular level. , 1988, Science.

[100]  L. Kubin,et al.  Noradrenergic, serotonergic and GABAergic antagonists injected together into the XII nucleus abolish the REM sleep‐like depression of hypoglossal motoneuronal activity , 2005, Journal of sleep research.

[101]  J. Siegel.  Ponto-Medullary Interactions in the Generation of REM Sleep , 2006 .

[102]  R. Szymusiak,et al.  Thermosensitive neurons of the diagonal band in rats: relation to wakefulness and non-rapid eye movement sleep , 1997, Brain Research.

[103]  Ralph Lydic,et al.  Pontine reticular formation (PnO) administration of hypocretin-1 increases PnO GABA levels and wakefulness. , 2008, Sleep.

[104]  F. L. D. Silva,et al.  Basic mechanisms of cerebral rhythmic activities , 1990 .

[105]  J. Siegel.  Clues to the functions of mammalian sleep , 2005, Nature.

[106]  J. Siegel,et al.  REM sleep signs rostral to chronic transections at the pontomedullary junction , 1984, Neuroscience Letters.

[107]  P. Bard,et al.  The Behaviour of Chronically Decerebrate Cats , 2008 .

[108]  B. Jones,et al.  c‐Fos expression in dopaminergic and GABAergic neurons of the ventral mesencephalic tegmentum after paradoxical sleep deprivation and recovery , 2002, The European journal of neuroscience.

[109]  D. German,et al.  Activity of mesencephalic dopamine and non-dopamine neurons across stages of sleep and waking in the rat , 1983, Brain Research.

[110]  Y. Lai,et al.  Descending projections from the dorsolateral pontine tegmentum to the paramedian reticular nucleus of the caudal medulla in the cat , 1990, Brain Research.

[111]  J. Siegel,et al.  Cataplexy-related neurons in the amygdala of the narcoleptic dog , 2002, Neuroscience.

[112]  R. Szymusiak,et al.  Sleep-related neuronal discharge in the basal forebrain of cats , 1986, Brain Research.

[113]  M. Mitler,et al.  Cataplectic-like behavior in cats after micro-injections of carbachol in pontine reticular formation. , 1974, Brain research.

[114]  J. Siegel,et al.  Mechanisms of seizure suppression during rapid-eye-movement (REM) sleep in cats , 1989, Brain Research.

[115]  Damien Gervasoni,et al.  Paradoxical (REM) sleep genesis: The switch from an aminergic–cholinergic to a GABAergic–glutamatergic hypothesis , 2006, Journal of Physiology-Paris.

[116]  J. Siegel,et al.  Pattern of Hypocretin (Orexin) Soma and Axon Loss, and Gliosis, in Human Narcolepsy , 2003, Brain pathology.

[117]  P. Luppi,et al.  Electrophysiological evidence that noradrenergic neurons of the rat locus coeruleus are tonically inhibited by GABA during sleep , 1998, The European journal of neuroscience.

[118]  J. Siegel,et al.  Facilitation of the acoustic startle reflex by ponto-geniculo-occipital waves: effects of PCPA , 1990, Brain Research.

[119]  M. Gadea-Ciria.  Tele-encephalic versus cerebellar control upon ponto-geniculo-occipital waves during paradoxical sleep in the cat , 2005, Experientia.

[120]  L. Kubin,et al.  A5 cells are silenced when REM sleep-like signs are elicited by pontine carbachol. , 2002, Journal of applied physiology.

[121]  B. Jones,et al.  Differential c-Fos Expression in Cholinergic, Monoaminergic, and GABAergic Cell Groups of the Pontomesencephalic Tegmentum after Paradoxical Sleep Deprivation and Recovery , 1999, The Journal of Neuroscience.

[122]  J. Siegel,et al.  Role of pontomedullary reticular formation neurons in horizontal head movements: an ibotenic acid lesion study in the cat , 1989, Brain Research.

[123]  M. Jouvet,et al.  Locus coeruleus et sommeil paradoxal , 1965 .

[124]  P. Luppi,et al.  Role of the dorsal paragigantocellular reticular nucleus in paradoxical (rapid eye movement) sleep generation: a combined electrophysiological and anatomical study in the rat , 2008, Neuroscience.

[125]  R. Drucker-Colín,et al.  Kainic acid lesions of gigantocellular tegmental field (FTG) neurons does not abolish REM sleep , 1983, Brain Research.

[126]  M. Mahowald,et al.  Pathophysiologic mechanisms in REM sleep behavior disorder , 2007, Current neurology and neuroscience reports.

[127]  R. Szymusiak,et al.  Sleep suppression following kainic acid-induced lesions of the basal forebrain , 1986, Experimental Neurology.

[128]  C. Economo.  SLEEP AS A PROBLEM OF LOCALIZATION , 1930 .

[129]  Jerome M. Siegel,et al.  Do all animals sleep? , 2008, Trends in Neurosciences.

[130]  J. Gillin,et al.  Effect of specific M1, M2 muscarinic receptor agonists on REM sleep generation , 1989, Brain Research.

[131]  P. Luppi,et al.  Characterization of the melanin‐concentrating hormone neurons activated during paradoxical sleep hypersomnia in rats , 2007, The Journal of comparative neurology.

[132]  R. Szymusiak,et al.  Sleep–waking discharge of neurons in the posterior lateral hypothalamus of the albino rat , 1999, Brain Research.

[133]  R. Szymusiak,et al.  Sleep‐waking discharge patterns of median preoptic nucleus neurons in rats , 2002, The Journal of physiology.

[134]  J. Siegel,et al.  Activity of medullary reticular formation neurons in the unrestrained cat during waking and sleep , 1979, Brain Research.

[135]  T. Jhou,et al.  Identification of Wake-Active Dopaminergic Neurons in the Ventral Periaqueductal Gray Matter , 2006, The Journal of Neuroscience.

[136]  J. Siegel,et al.  GABA release in the dorsal raphe nucleus: role in the control of REM sleep. , 1997, The American journal of physiology.

[137]  J. N. Hayward,et al.  Spontaneous activity of single neurones in the hypothalamus of rabbits during sleep and waking , 1969, The Journal of physiology.

[138]  Y. Lai,et al.  Activation of Pontine and Medullary Motor Inhibitory Regions Reduces Discharge in Neurons Located in the Locus Coeruleus and the Anatomical Equivalent of the Midbrain Locomotor Region , 2000, The Journal of Neuroscience.

[139]  B. Jacobs,et al.  Activity of Serotonergic Neurons in Behaving Animals , 1999, Neuropsychopharmacology.

[140]  Robert E Hampson,et al.  Systemic and Nasal Delivery of Orexin-A (Hypocretin-1) Reduces the Effects of Sleep Deprivation on Cognitive Performance in Nonhuman Primates , 2007, The Journal of Neuroscience.

[141]  A. N. van den Pol,et al.  Hypocretins (Orexins) Regulate Serotonin Neurons in the Dorsal Raphe Nucleus by Excitatory Direct and Inhibitory Indirect Actions , 2002, The Journal of Neuroscience.

[142]  J. Siegel,et al.  REM sleep without atonia after lesions of the medial medulla , 1989, Neuroscience Letters.

[143]  M. Steriade.  Brain Electrical Activity and Sensory Processing during Waking and Sleep States , 2005 .

[144]  P. Nolan,et al.  GABAA receptor antagonism at the hypoglossal motor nucleus increases genioglossus muscle activity in NREM but not REM sleep , 2003, The Journal of physiology.

[145]  H. Onoe,et al.  Pontine structures and mechanisms involved in the generation of paradoxical (REM) sleep. , 2001, Archives italiennes de biologie.

[146]  J. Siegel,et al.  Pontomedullary glutamate receptors mediating locomotion and muscle tone suppression , 1991, The Journal of neuroscience : the official journal of the Society for Neuroscience.

[147]  Jerome M. Siegel,et al.  Hypocretin (orexin) cell loss in Parkinson’s disease , 2007, Brain : a journal of neurology.

[148]  M M Mesulam,et al.  Report of IFCN Committee on Basic Mechanisms. Basic mechanisms of cerebral rhythmic activities. , 1990, Electroencephalography and clinical neurophysiology.

[149]  J. Siegel,et al.  Narcolepsy and the hypocretin system—where motion meets emotion , 2006, Nature Clinical Practice Neurology.

[150]  W. R. Adey,et al.  EEG sleep patterns after high cervical lesions in man. , 1968, Archives of neurology.

[151]  J. Siegel,et al.  Behavioral organization of reticular formation: studies in the unrestrained cat. II. Cells related to facial movements. , 1983, Journal of neurophysiology.

[152]  J A Hobson,et al.  Sleep cycle oscillation: reciprocal discharge by two brainstem neuronal groups. , 1975, Science.

[153]  M. Xi,et al.  Interactions between GABAergic and Cholinergic Processes in the Nucleus Pontis Oralis: Neuronal Mechanisms Controlling Active (Rapid Eye Movement) Sleep and Wakefulness , 2004, The Journal of Neuroscience.

[154]  Dennis McGinty,et al.  Hypothalamic control of sleep. , 2007, Sleep medicine.

[155]  C. Rampon,et al.  Brainstem glycinergic neurons and their activation during active (rapid eye movement) sleep in the cat , 2006, Neuroscience.

[156]  R. McCarley,et al.  Activation of Ventrolateral Preoptic Neurons During Sleep , 1996, Science.

[157]  G. Vanini,et al.  GABAergic processes in the mesencephalic tegmentum modulate the occurrence of active (rapid eye movement) sleep in guinea pigs , 2007, Neuroscience.