Relationships between Authentic Leadership, Moral Courage, and Ethical and Pro-Social Behaviors

ABSTRACT: Organizations constitute morally-complex environments, requiring organization members to possess levels of moral courage sufficient to promote their ethical action, while refraining from unethical actions when faced with temptations or pressures. Using a sample drawn from a military context, we explored the antecedents and consequences of moral courage. Results from this four-month field study demonstrated that authentic leadership was positively related to followers’ displays of moral courage. Further, followers’ moral courage fully mediated the effects of authentic leadership on followers’ ethical and pro-social behaviors. Theoretical and practical implications for further integrating the work on moral courage, authentic leadership and ethics are discussed.

[1]  B. Fredrickson The role of positive emotions in positive psychology. The broaden-and-build theory of positive emotions. , 2001, The American psychologist.

[2]  C. Carver,et al.  On the Self-Regulation of Behavior , 1998 .

[3]  Cynthia L. S. Pury,et al.  The construct of courage: Categorization and measurement. , 2007 .

[4]  B. Tepper Abusive Supervision in Work Organizations: Review, Synthesis, and Research Agenda , 2007 .

[5]  B. Bass,et al.  ETHICS, CHARACTER, AND AUTHENTIC TRANSFORMATIONAL LEADERSHIP , 2006 .

[6]  R. Payne Emotions at Work , 2007 .

[7]  C. Carver,et al.  On the Self-Regulation of Behavior , 1998 .

[8]  Fred O. Walumbwa,et al.  Linking ethical leadership to employee performance: The roles of leader-member exchange, self-efficacy, and organizational identification , 2011 .

[9]  Lawrence J Walker,et al.  Differing conceptions of moral exemplarity: just, brave, and caring. , 2004, Journal of personality and social psychology.

[10]  Richard P. Bagozzi,et al.  Moral courage in the workplace: moving to and from the desire and decision to act , 2007 .

[11]  A. Abram The Philosophy of Moral Development , 2007 .

[12]  M. Nussbaum Tragedy and Self-Sufficiency: Plato and Aristotle on Fear and Pity , 1992 .

[13]  Dennis A. Gioia,et al.  Scripts in Organizational Behavior , 1984 .

[14]  S. Hannah,et al.  The courageous mind-set: A dynamic personality system approach to courage. , 2010 .

[15]  Hui Wang,et al.  RETRACTED: Psychological processes linking authentic leadership to follower behaviors , 2010 .

[16]  Maureen L. Ambrose,et al.  The effect of leader moral development on ethical climate and employee attitudes , 2005 .

[17]  Fred O. Walumbwa,et al.  Unlocking the mask: a look at the process by which authentic leaders impact follower attitudes and behaviors , 2004 .

[18]  Deborah L. Wells,et al.  Group Processes and Performance and Their Effects on Individuals' Ethical Frameworks , 1999 .

[19]  R. Enright,et al.  Handbook of Moral Behavior and Development , 1991 .

[20]  Michael E. Brown,et al.  Ethical leadership: A social learning perspective for construct development and testing , 2005 .

[21]  Fred O. Walumbwa,et al.  Authentic Leadership: Development and Validation of a Theory-Based Measure† , 2008 .

[22]  Cooper R. Woodard Hardiness and the Concept of Courage. , 2004 .

[23]  Deborah L. Wells,et al.  Leadership and Ethics in Work Groups , 2002 .

[24]  B. Avolio,et al.  A framework for examining leadership in extreme contexts , 2009 .

[25]  C. Pury,et al.  The psychology of courage: Modern research on an ancient virtue. , 2010 .

[26]  D. R. Lehman,et al.  Self-Concept Clarity : Measurement , Personality Correlates , and Cultural Boundaries , 2001 .

[27]  L. Treviño,et al.  Behavioral Ethics in Organizations: A Review , 2006 .

[28]  D. Chambers Moral courage. , 2009, Journal of the California Dental Association.

[29]  Janet M. Dukerich,et al.  Moral Reasoning in Groups: Leaders Make a Difference , 1990 .

[30]  L. James,et al.  Estimating within-group interrater reliability with and without response bias. , 1984 .

[31]  A. Tomarken,et al.  Structural equation modeling: strengths, limitations, and misconceptions. , 2005, Annual review of clinical psychology.

[32]  A. Bandura Social cognitive theory of moral thought and action. , 1991 .

[33]  B. Bass,et al.  Ethics, character, and authentic transformational leadership behavior , 1999 .

[34]  S. Hannah,et al.  Moral leadership: Explicating the moral component of authentic leadership , 2005 .

[35]  W. Miller,et al.  The Mystery of Courage , 2001 .

[36]  A. Bandura Social Cognitive Theory: An Agentic Perspective , 1999 .

[37]  G. Schwan Civil Courage and Human Dignity: How to Regain Respect for the Fundamental Values of Western Democracy , 2014 .

[38]  C. C. Verschoor Eight ethical traits of a healthy organization , 2003 .

[39]  J. V. Wood,et al.  On building, defending, and regulating the self : a psychological perspective , 2005 .

[40]  Bruce J. Avolio,et al.  Moral Maturation and Moral Conation: A Capacity Approach to Explaining Moral Thought and Action , 2011 .

[41]  D. Putman Philosophical roots of the concept of courage. , 2010 .

[42]  M. Sobel Asymptotic Confidence Intervals for Indirect Effects in Structural Equation Models , 1982 .

[43]  B. Avolio,et al.  The High Impact Leader: Moments Matter in Accelerating Authentic Leadership Development , 2008 .

[44]  A. Blasi,et al.  Bridging Moral Cognition and Moral Action: A Critical Review of the Literature. , 1980 .

[45]  Jennifer S. Beer,et al.  Deciding versus Reacting: Conceptions of Moral Judgment and the Reason-Affect Debate , 2007 .

[46]  Scott J. Reynolds,et al.  A neurocognitive model of the ethical decision-making process: implications for study and practice. , 2006, The Journal of applied psychology.

[47]  B. Verplanken,et al.  Motivated decision making: effects of activation and self-centrality of values on choices and behavior. , 2002, Journal of personality and social psychology.

[48]  D. Wood Using the PRISM to compare the explanatory value of general and role-contextualized trait ratings. , 2007, Journal of personality.

[49]  Bruce J. Avolio,et al.  The ethics of charismatic leadership: submission or liberation? , 1992 .

[50]  Terance D. Miethe,et al.  Whistle-Blower Disclosures and Management Retaliation , 1999 .

[51]  Michael E. Brown,et al.  Ethical leadership: A review and future directions , 2006 .

[52]  Fred O. Walumbwa,et al.  LEADERSHIP IN ACTION TEAMS: TEAM LEADER AND MEMBERS’ AUTHENTICITY, AUTHENTICITY STRENGTH, AND TEAM OUTCOMES , 2011 .

[53]  Cynthia L. S. Pury,et al.  Distinctions between general and personal courage , 2007 .

[54]  S. Thompson Social Learning Theory , 2008 .

[55]  A. Bandura Moral Disengagement in the Perpetration of Inhumanities , 1999, Personality and social psychology review : an official journal of the Society for Personality and Social Psychology, Inc.

[56]  D. McGurk,et al.  Courage in combat. , 2010 .

[57]  Michael E. Brown,et al.  Ethical and Unethical Leadership: Exploring New Avenues for Future Research , 2010, Business Ethics Quarterly.

[58]  S. J. Motowidlo,et al.  Prosocial Organizational Behaviors , 1986 .

[59]  S. Hannah,et al.  Developing Courage in Followers: Theoretical and Applied Perspectives, The Psychology of Courage. , 2010 .

[60]  M. Seligman,et al.  Character Strengths and Virtues: A Handbook and Classification , 2004 .

[61]  Patricia H. Werhane,et al.  Moral imagination and management decision-making , 1999 .

[62]  B. Roberts,et al.  Propositions for the Study of Moral Personality Development , 2010, Current directions in psychological science.

[63]  C. Gruber The Psychology of Courage: Modern Research on an Ancient Virtue , 2011, Integrative psychological & behavioral science.

[64]  D. Bandalos The Effects of Item Parceling on Goodness-of-Fit and Parameter Estimate Bias in Structural Equation Modeling , 2002 .

[65]  S. West,et al.  A comparison of methods to test mediation and other intervening variable effects. , 2002, Psychological methods.

[66]  William A. Kahn Psychological Conditions of Personal Engagement and Disengagement at Work , 1990 .

[67]  Robert G. Lord,et al.  Leadership Processes and Follower Self-identity , 2003 .

[68]  M. Kernis,et al.  From Thought and Experience to Behavior and Interpersonal Relationships: A Multicomponent Conceptualization of Authenticity , 2005 .

[69]  S. Hannah Authentic Leadership , Moral Courage , and Behavior 1 Relationships between Authentic Leadership , Moral Courage , Ethical and Pro-social Behaviors , 2011 .

[70]  Jacob Cohen,et al.  Applied multiple regression/correlation analysis for the behavioral sciences , 1979 .

[71]  Fred O. Walumbwa,et al.  Leader personality traits and employee voice behavior: mediating roles of ethical leadership and work group psychological safety. , 2009, The Journal of applied psychology.

[72]  Fred Luthans,et al.  : Authentically leading groups: The mediating role of collective psychological capital and trust , 2011 .

[73]  Richard P. Bagozzi,et al.  Facing Ethical Challenges in the Workplace: Conceptualizing and Measuring Professional Moral Courage , 2009 .

[74]  F. Morgeson,et al.  Authentic leadership and eudaemonic well-being: Understanding leader-follower outcomes , 2005 .

[75]  James B. Avey,et al.  When Leadership Goes Unnoticed: The Moderating Role of Follower Self-Esteem on the Relationship Between Ethical Leadership and Follower Behavior , 2011 .

[76]  Stuart A. Youngblood,et al.  Bad apples in bad barrels: A causal analysis of ethical decision-making behavior. , 1990 .

[77]  Bruce J. Avolio,et al.  Moral potency: Building the capacity for character-based leadership. , 2010 .

[78]  L. Kohlberg,et al.  The Philosophy Of Moral Development , 1982 .

[79]  M. Bebeau,et al.  The Defining Issues Test and the Four Component Model: Contributions to professional education , 2002, Journal of moral education.

[80]  Bruce J. Avolio,et al.  “Can you see the real me?” A self-based model of authentic leader and follower development , 2005 .

[81]  T. Little,et al.  To Parcel or Not to Parcel: Exploring the Question, Weighing the Merits , 2002 .

[82]  Nelson H. Goud Courage: Its Nature and Development. , 2005 .

[83]  Ann E. Tenbrunsel,et al.  13 Ethical Decision Making: Where We’ve Been and Where We’re Going , 2008 .

[84]  Stephen J. Thoma,et al.  Postconventional Moral Thinking: A Neo-Kohlbergian Approach , 1999 .