Meta-Analysis of Gender Differences in Self-Compassion

While research suggests strong associations of self-compassion with mental health and well-being, gender norms may hinder the development of self-compassion by women on one hand, and men on the other. This study represents one of the first systematic analyses of potential gender differences in self-compassion using meta-analytic techniques, including whether such gender differences are moderated by age or ethnic minority status. Fixed-effects models were used to estimate the average effect size (ES) of gender differences in self-compassion scores across 71 journal articles and dissertations providing a total of 88 estimates. Results revealed that males had slightly higher levels of self-compassion than females, with a small ES observed (d = .18). This difference was larger in samples with a higher percentage of ethnic minorities. Researchers and practitioners should take these group differences into account in future studies and interventions focused on self-compassion, while not overemphasizing gender differences in self-compassion as being large in size.

[1]  W. Overton,et al.  Wisdom: A culturally inclusive developmental perspective , 2002 .

[2]  Brooke A. Mistler.  Forgiveness, perfectionism, and the role of self-compassion , 2010 .

[3]  B. N. Buswell,et al.  Gender differences in self-esteem: a meta-analysis. , 1999, Psychological bulletin.

[4]  Compassionate and Self-Image Goals in the United States and Japan , 2013 .

[5]  K. Neff,et al.  A pilot study and randomized controlled trial of the mindful self-compassion program. , 2013, Journal of clinical psychology.

[6]  A. Serretti,et al.  Mindfulness-based stress reduction for stress management in healthy people: a review and meta-analysis. , 2009, Journal of alternative and complementary medicine.

[7]  S. Chandler.  Can Self-Compassion Be Induced to Reduce Sexual Minority Stigma and Protect Psychological Functioning? , 2013 .

[8]  Nicole A. Bryan,et al.  Attachment and mental and physical health: self-compassion and mattering as mediators. , 2011, Journal of counseling psychology.

[9]  J. G. Williams.  Forewarning: a tool to disrupt stereotype threat effects , 2004 .

[10]  J. Fitzpatrick,et al.  Self-compassion and emotional intelligence in nurses. , 2010, International journal of nursing practice.

[11]  K. Neff,et al.  Self-Compassion and Self-Construal in the United States, Thailand, and Taiwan , 2008 .

[12]  J. Brooks-Gunn,et al.  The roles of respect for parental authority and parenting practices in parent-child conflict among African American, Latino, and European American families. , 2008, Journal of family psychology : JFP : journal of the Division of Family Psychology of the American Psychological Association.

[13]  Christina M. Brown,et al.  Self-compassion, empathy, and helping intentions , 2014 .

[14]  P. Lachenbruch.  Statistical Power Analysis for the Behavioral Sciences (2nd ed.) , 1989 .

[15]  Monika Ardelt,et al.  INTELLECTUAL VERSUS WISDOM-RELATED KNOWLEDGE: THE CASE FOR A DIFFERENT KIND OF LEARNING IN THE LATER YEARS OF LIFE , 2000 .

[16]  M. Waldo,et al.  Mindfulness Group Work: Preventing Stress and Increasing Self-Compassion Among Helping Professionals in Training , 2012 .

[17]  F. Raes.  Rumination and worry as mediators of the relationship between self-compassion and depression and anxiety , 2010 .

[18]  M. Proeve,et al.  Relationships of Mindfulness, Self-Compassion, and Meditation Experience With Shame-Proneness , 2014, Journal of Cognitive Psychotherapy.

[19]  Serena Chen,et al.  Self-compassion increases self-improvement motivation. , 2012, Personality & social psychology bulletin.

[20]  Murat Iskender.  The relationship between self-compassion, self-efficacy, and control belief about learning in Turkish university students , 2009 .

[21]  Monika Ardelt,et al.  Are Older Adults Wiser Than College Students? A Comparison of Two Age Cohorts , 2010 .

[22]  K. J. Crowley,et al.  Comparing Self-Compassion, Mindfulness, and Psychological Inflexibility as Predictors of Psychological Health , 2014 .

[23]  Linda G. Castillo,et al.  Construction and initial validation of the Marianismo Beliefs Scale , 2010 .

[24]  Jacob Cohen.  Statistical Power Analysis for the Behavioral Sciences , 1969, The SAGE Encyclopedia of Research Design.

[25]  M. Leary,et al.  Self-compassion in patients with persistent musculoskeletal pain: relationship of self-compassion to adjustment to persistent pain. , 2012, Journal of pain and symptom management.

[26]  Daniel J. Faso,et al.  Self-Compassion and Well-Being in Parents of Children with Autism , 2014, Mindfulness.

[27]  S. N. Beretvas,et al.  The Role of Self-compassion in Romantic Relationships , 2013 .

[28]  Jeannie K. Wright.  The compassionate mind , 2007 .

[29]  S. Shapiro,et al.  Teaching Self-Care to Caregivers: Effects of Mindfulness-Based Stress Reduction on the Mental Health of Therapists in Training , 2007 .

[30]  K. Pakenham,et al.  The effectiveness of an ACT informed intervention for managing stress and improving therapist qualities in clinical psychology trainees. , 2012, Journal of clinical psychology.

[31]  D. Weibel.  A loving-kindness intervention : boosting compassion for self and others. , 2007 .

[32]  Serena Chen,et al.  Activating the inner caregiver: The role of support-giving schemas in increasing state self-compassion , 2013 .

[33]  Weilin Li,et al.  The More Things Change, the More They Stay the Same: Gender, Culture, and College Students' Views about Work and Family , 2012 .

[34]  J. Mahalik,et al.  Cross-Sectional Study of Gender Role Conflict Examining College-Aged and Middle-Aged Men. , 1995 .

[35]  K. Neff.  The Role of Self-Compassion in Development: A Healthier Way to Relate to Oneself , 2009, Human Development.

[36]  Michael D. Robinson,et al.  Don't Be So Hard on Yourself: Self-Compassion Facilitates Creative Originality Among Self-Judgmental Individuals , 2010 .

[37]  E. Lykins,et al.  Comparing Mindfulness-Based Intervention Strategies: Differential Effects of Sitting Meditation, Body Scan, and Mindful Yoga , 2013 .

[38]  N. V. Van Dam,et al.  How Does Mindfulness Reduce Anxiety, Depression, and Stress? An Exploratory Examination of Change Processes in Wait-List Controlled Mindfulness Meditation Training , 2014 .

[39]  B. Leadbeater,et al.  A multivariate model of gender differences in adolescents' internalizing and externalizing problems. , 1999, Developmental psychology.

[40]  Y. Ying,et al.  Stress and Coping with a Professional Challenge in Entering Masters of Social Work Students: The Role of Self‐Compassion , 2009 .

[41]  Kelsie J. Tatum.  Adherence to Gender Roles as a Predictor of Compassion and Self-Compassion in Women and Men , 2012 .

[42]  P. Gilbert,et al.  Fears of compassion: development of three self-report measures. , 2011, Psychology and psychotherapy.

[43]  F. Q. Ribeiro.  The meta-analysis , 2017, Brazilian journal of otorhinolaryngology.

[44]  L. Hedges,et al.  The Handbook of Research Synthesis , 1995 .

[45]  J. Gross,et al.  A randomized trial of MBSR versus aerobic exercise for social anxiety disorder. , 2012, Journal of clinical psychology.

[46]  P. Gilbert,et al.  Paranoid beliefs and self‐criticism in students , 2007 .

[47]  N. Ramkumar.  Self-Compassion in Overcontrolled, Undercontrolled, and Resilient Personality Types , 2012 .

[48]  K. Neff,et al.  The Development and Validation of a Scale to Measure Self-Compassion , 2003 .

[49]  Justin Doran,et al.  Does all coaching enhance objective performance independently evaluated by blind assessors? The importance of the coaching model and content , 2009, International Coaching Psychology Review.

[50]  Willem Kuyken,et al.  How does mindfulness-based cognitive therapy work? , 2010, Behaviour research and therapy.

[51]  F. Raes.  The Effect of Self-Compassion on the Development of Depression Symptoms in a Non-clinical Sample , 2011 .

[52]  Tracy L Simpson,et al.  Loving-kindness meditation for posttraumatic stress disorder: a pilot study. , 2013, Journal of traumatic stress.

[53]  L. Ontai,et al.  Gender Socialization in Latino/a Families: Results from Two Retrospective Studies , 2004 .

[54]  D. Bergen-Cico,et al.  The Mediating Effects of Mindfulness and Self-Compassion on Trait Anxiety , 2014 .

[55]  J. E. Yadavaia.  Using Acceptance and Commitment Therapy to Decrease High-Prevalence Psychopathology by Targeting Self-Compassion: A Randomized Controlled Trial , 2013 .

[56]  J. Riggs.  Mandates for Mothers and Fathers: Perceptions of Breadwinners and Care Givers , 1997 .

[57]  Kenneth Colosimo,et al.  Mindfulness, self-compassion, and happiness in non-meditators: A theoretical and empirical examination , 2011 .

[58]  興記 有光.  セルフ・コンパッション尺度日本語版の作成と信頼性，妥当性の検討 , 2014 .

[59]  R. Rengasamy,et al.  Gender in Development , 2012 .

[60]  J. Wingrove,et al.  Mindfulness-based cognitive therapy for people with chronic fatigue syndrome still experiencing excessive fatigue after cognitive behaviour therapy: a pilot randomized study. , 2013, Clinical psychology & psychotherapy.

[61]  Meifen Wei,et al.  Attachment, self-compassion, empathy, and subjective well-being among college students and community adults. , 2011, Journal of personality.

[62]  R. Vonk,et al.  Self-compassion versus global self-esteem: two different ways of relating to oneself. , 2009, Journal of personality.

[63]  K. Bluth,et al.  Mindfulness and Self-Compassion: Exploring Pathways to Adolescent Emotional Well-Being , 2013, Journal of Child and Family Studies.

[64]  N. V. Van Dam,et al.  Self-compassion is a better predictor than mindfulness of symptom severity and quality of life in mixed anxiety and depression. , 2011, Journal of anxiety disorders.

[65]  Dong-gwi Lee,et al.  The Effect of Self-compassion on Emotions when Experiencing a Sense of Inferiority Across Comparison Situations , 2014 .

[66]  J. Miller,et al.  Toward a new psychology of women , 1976 .

[67]  Paul Gilbert,et al.  A pilot exploration of heart rate variability and salivary cortisol responses to compassion-focused imagery. , 2008 .

[68]  D. Bergen-Cico,et al.  Examining the Efficacy of a Brief Mindfulness-Based Stress Reduction (Brief MBSR) Program on Psychological Health , 2013, Journal of American college health : J of ACH.

[69]  M. Mehl,et al.  When Leaving Your Ex, Love Yourself , 2012, Psychological science.

[70]  S. Ferguson,et al.  Self-compassion: a resource for positive aging. , 2013, The journals of gerontology. Series B, Psychological sciences and social sciences.

[71]  K. Neff.  Self-Compassion: An Alternative Conceptualization of a Healthy Attitude Toward Oneself , 2003 .

[72]  M. Leary,et al.  Self-compassion and Well-being among Older Adults , 2012, Self and identity : the journal of the International Society for Self and Identity.

[73]  Nancy Eisenberg,et al.  Sex Differences in Empathy and Related Capacities , 1983 .

[74]  L. Carlson,et al.  Exploring self‐compassion and empathy in the context of mindfulness‐based stress reduction (MBSR) , 2010 .

[75]  S. Rude,et al.  An examination of self-compassion in relation to positive psychological functioning and personality traits , 2007 .

[76]  Emiliana R. Simon-Thomas,et al.  Enhancing Compassion: A Randomized Controlled Trial of a Compassion Cultivation Training Program , 2013 .

[77]  M. Pritchard,et al.  Analysis of Gender Differences in Self-Statements and Mood Disorders , 2013 .

[78]  Edward A. Johnson,et al.  SELF-COMPASSION SOOTHES THE SAVAGE EGO-THREAT SYSTEM: EFFECTS ON NEGATIVE AFFECT, SHAME, RUMINATION, AND DEPRESSIVE SYMPTOMS , 2013 .

[79]  M. Maytan,et al.  A Randomized Controlled Trial of Koru: A Mindfulness Program for College Students and Other Emerging Adults , 2014, Journal of American college health : J of ACH.

[80]  J. Hyde,et al.  The Gender Similarities Hypothesis , 2005 .

[81]  Juliana G. Breines,et al.  Self-compassion as a predictor of interleukin-6 response to acute psychosocial stress , 2014, Brain, Behavior, and Immunity.

[82]  K. L. Kirkpatrick.  Enhancing self-compassion using a gestalt two-chair intervention , 2005 .

[83]  A. Gumley,et al.  Exploring compassion: a meta-analysis of the association between self-compassion and psychopathology. , 2012, Clinical psychology review.

[84]  Jennifer B. Webb,et al.  Evaluating the indirect effect of self-compassion on binge eating severity through cognitive-affective self-regulatory pathways. , 2013, Eating behaviors.

[85]  J. Brinker,et al.  Self-compassion, a better alternative to rumination than distraction as a response to negative mood , 2015 .

[86]  Robert G. Orwin,et al.  EVALUATING CODING DECISIONS , 2019, The Handbook of Research Synthesis and Meta-Analysis.

[87]  S. Nolen-Hoeksema,et al.  Sex Differences in Unipolar Depression: Evidence and Theory Background on the Affective Disorders , 1987 .

[88]  L. Yarnell,et al.  Self-compassion, Interpersonal Conflict Resolutions, and Well-being , 2013 .

[89]  Masako Tanaka,et al.  The linkages among childhood maltreatment, adolescent mental health, and self-compassion in child welfare adolescents. , 2011, Child abuse & neglect.

[90]  S. Rude,et al.  Self-compassion and adaptive psychological functioning. , 2007 .

[91]  R. Levant.  Research in the psychology of men and masculinity using the gender role strain paradigm as a framework. , 2011, The American psychologist.

[92]  K. Neff,et al.  The Relationship between Self-compassion and Other-focused Concern among College Undergraduates, Community Adults, and Practicing Meditators , 2013 .

[93]  J. Astin,et al.  Mindfulness-Based Stress Reduction for Health Care Professionals: Results From a Randomized Trial , 2005 .

[94]  William R. Shadish,et al.  Combining estimates of effect size. , 1994 .

[95]  K. Neff,et al.  Self-compassion, Achievement Goals, and Coping with Academic Failure , 2005 .

[96]  J. Curry,et al.  The Relationship of Clergy Burnout to Self-Compassion and Other Personality Dimensions , 2012 .

[97]  Karen E. Dill-Shackleford,et al.  Self-Compassion and Body Dissatisfaction in Women: A Randomized Controlled Trial of a Brief Meditation Intervention , 2015 .

[98]  J. Creswell,et al.  Helping the self help others: self-affirmation increases self-compassion and pro-social behaviors , 2014, Front. Psychol..

[99]  Feng Li,et al.  An Introduction to Metaanalysis , 2005 .

[100]  Robert K. Hindman.  A Comparison of Mindfulness-Based Programs for Stress in University Students , 2013 .

[101]  J. Mahalik,et al.  The effects of racism, african self-consciousness and psychological functioning on black masculinity: A historical and social adaptation framework , 2001 .

[102]  Brian L Thompson,et al.  Self-compassion and PTSD symptom severity. , 2008, Journal of traumatic stress.

[103]  F. Raes,et al.  Construction and factorial validation of a short form of the Self-Compassion Scale. , 2011, Clinical psychology & psychotherapy.

[104]  Brittany Gentile,et al.  Gender Differences in Domain-Specific Self-Esteem: A Meta-Analysis , 2009 .

[105]  R. Delgado,et al.  Critical Race Theory: An Introduction , 2014 .

[106]  Jennifer L. Williams.  Examining the Moderating Effects of Adolescent Self-Compassion on the Relationship Between Social Rank and Depression , 2013 .

[107]  L. Webber,et al.  Evaluation of an Occupational Mindfulness Program for Staff Employed in the Disability Sector in Australia , 2013 .

[108]  Erin D. Reilly,et al.  Men's Self-Compassion and Self-Esteem: The Moderating Roles of Shame and Masculine Norm Adherence , 2014 .

[109]  M. Leary,et al.  Self-compassion and reactions to unpleasant self-relevant events: the implications of treating oneself kindly. , 2007, Journal of personality and social psychology.

[110]  M. Leary,et al.  Self-compassionate responses to aging. , 2014, The Gerontologist.

[111]  L. Hedges,et al.  Introduction to Meta‐Analysis , 2009, International Coaching Psychology Review.

[112]  C. Hall,et al.  The Role of Self-Compassion in Physical and Psychological Well-Being , 2013, The Journal of psychology.

[113]  D. Zuroff,et al.  Who benefits from training in self-compassionate self-regulation? A study of smoking reduction. , 2010 .

[114]  K. Neff,et al.  Self-compassion and Psychological Resilience Among Adolescents and Young Adults , 2010 .

[115]  N. el-Guebaly,et al.  Gender Similarities and Differences , 2004, Journal of addictive diseases.

[116]  L. Baker,et al.  Self-compassion and relationship maintenance: the moderating roles of conscientiousness and gender. , 2011, Journal of personality and social psychology.

[117]  K. Arimitsu.  [Development and validation of the Japanese version of the Self-Compassion Scale]. , 2014, Shinrigaku kenkyu : The Japanese journal of psychology.

[118]  Joelle C. Ruthig,et al.  Perceptions of Gender Discrimination across Six Decades: The Moderating Roles of Gender and Age , 2013 .