Basic Physiology for Anaesthetists

Every trainee in anaesthesia requires a thorough understanding of basic physiology and its application to clinical practice. This comprehensively illustrated textbook bridges the gap between medical school and reference scientific texts. It covers the physiology requirements of the Primary FRCA examination syllabus. Chapters are organised by organ system, with particular emphasis given to the respiratory, cardiovascular and nervous systems. The practical question-and-answer format helps the reader prepare for the oral examination, while 'clinical relevance' boxes translate the physiological concepts to clinical practice. The authors include two medical physiologists and a Specialty Registrar in anaesthesia, and thereby bring a unique blend of expertise. This ensures that the book is up-to-date, accessible, and pitched appropriately for the trainee anaesthetist. Packed with easily understood, up-to-date and clinically relevant material, this convenient volume provides an essential 'one-stop' resource in physiology for junior anaesthetists.

[1]  Denis Chemla,et al.  Clinical review: Interpretation of arterial pressure wave in shock states , 2005, Critical care.

[2]  Neil Allan,et al.  Anaesthetic implications of chemotherapy , 2012 .

[3]  Atul Malhotra,et al.  Pulmonary characteristics in COPD and mechanisms of increased work of breathing. , 2009, Journal of applied physiology.

[4]  V. Lawrence,et al.  Strategies To Reduce Postoperative Pulmonary Complications after Noncardiothoracic Surgery: Systematic Review for the American College of Physicians , 2006, Annals of Internal Medicine.

[5]  A. Ashworth,et al.  Cell salvage as part of a blood conservation strategy in anaesthesia. , 2010, British journal of anaesthesia.

[6]  Neil A Hall,et al.  Renal replacement therapies in critical care , 2006 .

[7]  H. Krovvidi,et al.  Blood–brain barrier , 2011 .

[8]  Morven Wilson,et al.  Haemoglobinopathy and sickle cell disease , 2010 .

[9]  A. Absalom,et al.  Sympathetic regulation of cerebral blood flow in humans: a review. , 2013, British journal of anaesthesia.

[10]  H. Ranu,et al.  Pulmonary Function Tests , 2011, The Ulster medical journal.

[11]  J G Hopker,et al.  Controversies in the physiological basis of the ‘anaerobic threshold’ and their implications for clinical cardiopulmonary exercise testing , 2011, Anaesthesia.

[12]  John F. Nunn,et al.  Nunn's Applied Respiratory Physiology , 1993 .

[13]  J. Levick,et al.  An Introduction to Cardiovascular Physiology , 2009 .

[14]  Ben Gibbison,et al.  Mitral Valve and Mitral Valve Disease , 2017 .

[15]  James Milledge,et al.  High altitude medicine and physiology , 1989 .

[16]  Chris Dodds,et al.  Pre‐operative assessment of the elderly , 2001 .

[17]  C. Michel,et al.  Fluid exchange in the microcirculation , 2004, The Journal of physiology.

[18]  C. M. Harper,et al.  NICE and warm. , 2008, British journal of anaesthesia.

[19]  M. Gulisano,et al.  The circle of Willis in healthy older persons. , 2002, The Journal of cardiovascular surgery.

[20]  Bernhard H Heidemann,et al.  Changes in maternal physiology during pregnancy , 2003 .

[21]  William C. Little,et al.  The cardiac cycle and the physiologic basis of left ventricular contraction, ejection, relaxation, and filling. , 2008, Heart failure clinics.

[22]  Bruce Alberts,et al.  Essential Cell Biology , 1983 .

[23]  P. Barash,et al.  Coronary stents: factors contributing to perioperative major adverse cardiovascular events. , 2010, British journal of anaesthesia.

[24]  Jm Dippenaar,et al.  Local anaesthetic toxicity , 2007 .

[25]  M. Cheitlin,et al.  Cardiovascular physiology-changes with aging. , 2003, The American journal of geriatric cardiology.

[26]  R. Brull,et al.  Peri‐operative intravenous administration of magnesium sulphate and postoperative pain: a meta‐analysis , 2013, Anaesthesia.

[27]  G. Hall,et al.  Endocrine and metabolic response to surgery , 2004 .

[28]  D. Buggy,et al.  Thermoregulation and mild peri‐operative hypothermia , 2003 .

[29]  John Rose Bradford,et al.  The Pulmonary Circulation 1 , 1894 .

[30]  J. Low,et al.  Metabolic acidosis in the critically ill: Part 2. Causes and treatment , 2008, Anaesthesia.

[31]  Edward R. Ashwood,et al.  Tietz Textbook of Clinical Chemistry and Molecular Diagnostics , 2005 .

[32]  S. Andersson,et al.  Thoracic epidural analgesia inhibits the neuro-hormonal but not the acute inflammatory stress response after radical retropubic prostatectomy. , 2013, British journal of anaesthesia.

[33]  M. Berridge,et al.  The versatility and universality of calcium signalling , 2000, Nature Reviews Molecular Cell Biology.

[34]  A. R. Wilkes,et al.  Heat and moisture exchangers and breathing system filters: their use in anaesthesia and intensive care. Part 1 – history, principles and efficiency , 2011, Anaesthesia.

[35]  Andrew D. Farmery,et al.  Core Topics In Airway Management: Physiology of apnoea and hypoxia , 2005 .

[36]  A Shander,et al.  What is really dangerous: anaemia or transfusion? , 2011, British journal of anaesthesia.

[37]  P. Nightingale,et al.  An alternative approach to acid–base abnormalities in critically ill patients , 2007 .

[38]  K. Ho,et al.  Benefits and risks of furosemide in acute kidney injury , 2010, Anaesthesia.

[39]  Michael Bauer,et al.  How to assess liver function? , 2010, Current opinion in critical care.

[40]  Christopher J. Lote,et al.  Principles of Renal Physiology , 1987, Springer Netherlands.

[41]  Christopher L.-H. Huang,et al.  Applied physiology for surgery and critical care , 1995 .

[42]  Jonathan G. Hardman,et al.  Anaesthesia and adrenocortical disease , 2005 .

[43]  Mone Zaidi,et al.  Translational musculoskeletal science: Is sarcopenia the next clinical target after osteoporosis? , 2011, Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences.

[44]  R. Pearse,et al.  Pro-Con Debate: We should not Measure Cardiac output in Critical Care , 2009 .

[45]  Jürgen Sandkühler,et al.  Models and mechanisms of hyperalgesia and allodynia. , 2009, Physiological reviews.

[46]  Kate E Drummond,et al.  Minimally invasive cardiac output monitors , 2012 .

[47]  David J Chambers,et al.  Hypokalaemia: The Dangers of a Sweet Tooth , 2012 .

[48]  M. Struys,et al.  Pharmacokinetic models for propofol--defining and illuminating the devil in the detail. , 2009, British journal of anaesthesia.

[49]  Cameron J. Weir,et al.  The molecular mechanisms of general anaesthesia: dissecting the GABA A receptor , 2006 .

[50]  C. Lilly,et al.  The ProCESS trial--a new era of sepsis management. , 2014, The New England journal of medicine.

[51]  Paul M Ness,et al.  Oxygen therapeutics: pursuit of an alternative to the donor red blood cell. , 2007, Archives of pathology & laboratory medicine.

[52]  Ben Gibbison,et al.  Hypothalamic–pituitary–adrenal function during health, major surgery, and critical illness , 2017 .

[53]  P. Devereaux,et al.  Troponin elevations after non-cardiac, non-vascular surgery are predictive of major adverse cardiac events and mortality: a systematic review and meta-analysis. , 2016, British journal of anaesthesia.

[54]  A. Klein,et al.  Antifibrinolytic agents in current anaesthetic practice. , 2013, British journal of anaesthesia.

[55]  G. Snyder,et al.  Effect of anaesthetic technique and other perioperative factors on cancer recurrence. , 2010, British journal of anaesthesia.

[56]  Ajay Raithatha,et al.  Developments in the management of acute ischaemic stroke: implications for anaesthetic and critical care management , 2013 .

[57]  I. Biaggioni,et al.  Primer on the Autonomic Nervous System: Second Edition , 2004 .

[58]  David N. Irani,et al.  Cerebrospinal Fluid in Clinical Practice , 2008 .

[59]  A. Lumb,et al.  Chapter 31 – Respiratory Support and Artificial Ventilation , 2017 .

[60]  C A Smith,et al.  Contributions of central and peripheral chemoreceptors to the ventilatory response to CO2/H+. , 2010, Journal of applied physiology.

[61]  Gerardo Tusman,et al.  Rationale of Dead Space Measurement by Volumetric Capnography , 2012, Anesthesia and analgesia.

[62]  T. Cummings,et al.  The treatment of cyanide poisoning. , 2004, Occupational medicine.

[63]  E Kirkman,et al.  The pathophysiology of sepsis , 2002 .

[64]  Reiko Nakao,et al.  Glucose Infusion Suppresses Surgery-induced Muscle Protein Breakdown by Inhibiting Ubiquitin-proteasome Pathway in Rats , 2009, Anesthesiology.

[65]  G. Sacks,et al.  Review of the refeeding syndrome. , 2005, Nutrition in clinical practice : official publication of the American Society for Parenteral and Enteral Nutrition.

[66]  Jennifer M Hunter,et al.  Neuromuscular physiology and pharmacology: an update , 2012 .

[67]  R. Bellomo,et al.  The Third International Consensus Definitions for Sepsis and Septic Shock (Sepsis-3). , 2016, JAMA.

[68]  Isabelle Murat,et al.  Perioperative fasting in adults and children: guidelines from the European Society of Anaesthesiology. , 2011, European journal of anaesthesiology.

[69]  D. Sessler,et al.  Inflammatory response, immunosuppression, and cancer recurrence after perioperative blood transfusions. , 2013, British journal of anaesthesia.

[70]  J. Hussey,et al.  Role of cardiopulmonary exercise testing as a risk-assessment method in patients undergoing intra-abdominal surgery: a systematic review. , 2016, British journal of anaesthesia.

[71]  F. Rector,et al.  Countercurrent multiplication system without active transport in inner medulla. , 1972, Kidney international.

[72]  S. Gandevia,et al.  The proprioceptive senses: their roles in signaling body shape, body position and movement, and muscle force. , 2012, Physiological reviews.

[73]  H. Lemmens,et al.  Dose adjustment of anaesthetics in the morbidly obese. , 2010, British journal of anaesthesia.

[74]  A. Klein,et al.  NICE guidance on CardioQTM oesophageal Doppler monitoring , 2011, Anaesthesia.

[75]  A. Lumb,et al.  Elastic forces and lung volumes , 2010 .

[76]  Dj Hausenloy,et al.  Management of myocardial reperfusion injury , 2012 .

[77]  Edward M. Balog,et al.  Malignant Hyperthermia: An Inherited Disorder of Skeletal Muscle Ca2+ Regulation , 2001, Bioscience reports.

[78]  Michael Castellini,et al.  Life under water: physiological adaptations to diving and living at sea. , 2012, Comprehensive Physiology.

[79]  M. Luckey,et al.  Membrane Structural Biology: With Biochemical and Biophysical Foundations , 2008 .

[80]  K. J. Girling,et al.  Management of head injury in the intensive-care unit , 2004 .

[81]  Sarah Bell,et al.  Age-related pharmacology , 2005 .

[82]  J. Levick,et al.  Control of stroke volume and cardiac output , 1991 .

[83]  P. Murphy,et al.  The fetal circulation , 2005 .

[84]  Steve S Kraman,et al.  The physiologic basis of spirometry. , 2009, Respiratory care.

[85]  T. Richards,et al.  AAGBI guidelines: the use of blood components and their alternatives 2016 , 2016, Anaesthesia.

[86]  M. Swartz,et al.  The Peripheral Vascular System , 2009 .

[87]  G. Gutierrez,et al.  Clinical review: Hemorrhagic shock , 2004, Critical care.

[88]  S. Hagihira,et al.  Changes in the electroencephalogram during anaesthesia and their physiological basis. , 2015, British journal of anaesthesia.

[89]  J. Gossage,et al.  Pulmonary arteriovenous malformations. A state of the art review. , 1998, American journal of respiratory and critical care medicine.

[90]  Chris Dodds,et al.  Perioperative care of the elderly , 2004 .

[91]  P. Flood,et al.  Anaesthetic considerations for non-obstetric surgery during pregnancy. , 2011, British journal of anaesthesia.

[92]  J. Zicha,et al.  Mechanisms of neurogenic pulmonary edema development. , 2008, Physiological research.

[93]  R Bellomo,et al.  Strong ions, weak acids and base excess: a simplified Fencl-Stewart approach to clinical acid-base disorders. , 2004, British journal of anaesthesia.

[94]  Feroze U. Mahmood,et al.  Physiology and pathophysiology at high altitude: considerations for the anesthesiologist , 2009, Journal of Anesthesia.

[95]  J. Hunter,et al.  Editorial III: Anaphylaxis and anaesthesia--all clear now? , 2004, British journal of anaesthesia.

[96]  A. Scholz,et al.  Mechanisms of (local) anaesthetics on voltage-gated sodium and other ion channels. , 2002, British journal of anaesthesia.

[97]  S. Howell,et al.  Cardiac muscle physiology , 2007 .

[98]  J. Hunter,et al.  Physiology of the neuromuscular junction , 2002 .

[99]  S. Guller,et al.  Role of the syncytium in placenta-mediated complications of preeclampsia. , 2009, Thrombosis research.

[100]  F. Eberli,et al.  Diastolic heart failure. , 2000, Cardiovascular Research.

[101]  D Katz,et al.  Disorders of coagulation in pregnancy. , 2015, British journal of anaesthesia.

[102]  Stephen H Wright,et al.  Generation of resting membrane potential. , 2004, Advances in physiology education.

[103]  R. Mahajan,et al.  Effect of cricoid pressure on gastro‐oesophageal reflux in awake subjects , 1999, Anaesthesia.

[104]  Maureane Hoffman,et al.  Remodeling the Blood Coagulation Cascade , 2003, Journal of Thrombosis and Thrombolysis.

[105]  K. Pattinson,et al.  Monitoring intracranial pressure, perfusion and metabolism , 2005 .

[106]  Ravi Mahajan,et al.  One‐lung anaesthesia , 2002 .

[107]  Michael P.W. Grocott,et al.  Humans at altitude: physiology and pathophysiology , 2013 .

[108]  P. Heerdt,et al.  Perioperative goal-directed haemodynamic therapy based on flow parameters: a concept in evolution. , 2016, British journal of anaesthesia.

[109]  Plr Bonner,et al.  Enzymes: Biochemistry, Biotechnology and Clinical Chemistry , 2004 .

[110]  J. Shega,et al.  Advances in understanding the mechanisms and management of persistent pain in older adults. , 2008, British journal of anaesthesia.

[111]  S. Lindgren,et al.  Complications associated with peripheral or central routes for central venous cannulation , 2012, Anaesthesia.

[112]  Leopold Stiebellehner,et al.  Comparison of plethysmographic and helium dilution lung volumes: which is best for COPD? , 2010, Chest.

[113]  Changfeng Tai,et al.  Spinal reflex control of micturition after spinal cord injury. , 2006, Restorative neurology and neuroscience.

[114]  B. Biccard,et al.  The pathophysiology of peri‐operative myocardial infarction , 2010, Anaesthesia.

[115]  R Rossaint,et al.  Coagulopathy and blood component transfusion in trauma. , 2005, British journal of anaesthesia.

[116]  Sangeeta Mehta,et al.  Neuromuscular disease causing acute respiratory failure. , 2006, Respiratory care.

[117]  Steven Cruickshank,et al.  The alveolar gas equation , 2004 .

[118]  J. Hunter,et al.  Reversal of neuromuscular block. , 2009, British journal of anaesthesia.

[119]  Michael R. Pinsky,et al.  Coronary Circulation and Myocardial Ischemia , 2002, Update in Intensive Care Medicine.

[120]  R. Sirian,et al.  Physiology of apnoea and the benefits of preoxygenation , 2009 .

[121]  A. Lumb,et al.  Distribution of pulmonary ventilation and perfusion , 2010 .

[122]  Philippa Veale,et al.  Anaesthesia and acute spinal cord injury , 2002 .

[123]  D D Mathes,et al.  Bleomycin and Hyperoxia Exposure in the Operating Room , 1995, Anesthesia and analgesia.

[124]  Preea Gill,et al.  Smoke inhalation injury , 2015 .

[125]  F. Carli,et al.  Postoperative Urinary Retention: Anesthetic and Perioperative Considerations , 2009, Anesthesiology.

[126]  Swastik Agrawal,et al.  Evaluation of abnormal liver function tests , 2003, Postgraduate medical journal.

[127]  R Bellomo,et al.  The Meaning of Acute Kidney Injury and Its Relevance to Intensive Care and Anaesthesia , 2012, Anaesthesia and intensive care.

[128]  Adam C. Searleman,et al.  Anesthesia awareness and the bispectral index. , 2008, The New England journal of medicine.

[129]  Michael Zimpfer,et al.  The Effect of Graded Hypothermia (36°C–32°C) on Hemostasis in Anesthetized Patients Without Surgical Trauma , 2003 .

[130]  Neil Agnew,et al.  Preoperative cardiopulmonary exercise testing , 2010 .

[131]  G. London,et al.  Arterial functions: how to interpret the complex physiology. , 2010, Nephrology, dialysis, transplantation : official publication of the European Dialysis and Transplant Association - European Renal Association.

[132]  A. T. Dennis,et al.  Acute pulmonary oedema in pregnant women , 2012, Anaesthesia.

[133]  K. Pattinson,et al.  Opioids and the control of respiration. , 2008, British journal of anaesthesia.

[134]  Siegfried Hagl,et al.  Bronchial artery revascularization affects graft recovery after lung transplantation. , 2002, American journal of respiratory and critical care medicine.

[135]  Keith Stokes,et al.  Physiological effects of exercise , 2004 .

[136]  Ross Freebairn,et al.  Principles of antibacterial dosing in continuous renal replacement therapy , 2009, Critical care medicine.

[137]  D. Spahn,et al.  Allogeneic red blood cell transfusions: efficacy, risks, alternatives and indications. , 2005, British journal of anaesthesia.

[138]  Timothy D. H. Bugg,et al.  Introduction to Enzyme and Coenzyme Chemistry , 1997 .

[139]  L. James,et al.  Mechanisms of acetaminophen-induced liver necrosis. , 2010, Handbook of experimental pharmacology.

[140]  C. Sprung,et al.  Surviving Sepsis Campaign: International Guidelines for Management of Severe Sepsis and Septic Shock 2012 , 2013, Critical care medicine.

[141]  T. Woolley,et al.  Haemorrhage and coagulopathy in the Defence Medical Services , 2013, Anaesthesia.

[142]  M. Grocott,et al.  Physiology of oxygen transport , 2016 .

[143]  Ennio Pannese,et al.  Neurocytology: Fine Structure of Neurons, Nerve Processes, and Neuroglial Cells , 1994 .

[144]  S. Roth,et al.  Perioperative visual loss: what do we know, what can we do? , 2009, British journal of anaesthesia.

[145]  N R Webster,et al.  Physiology of the endothelium. , 2004, British journal of anaesthesia.

[146]  D J Buggy,et al.  Intraoperative fluids: how much is too much? , 2012, British journal of anaesthesia.

[147]  J W Simmons,et al.  Acute traumatic coagulopathy: pathophysiology and resuscitation. , 2016, British journal of anaesthesia.

[148]  Kabir Mohammed,et al.  Long-term Survival for Patients Undergoing Volatile versus IV Anesthesia for Cancer Surgery: A Retrospective Analysis , 2016, Anesthesiology.

[149]  John B. West Ventilation/Blood Flow and Gas Exchange , 1977 .

[150]  W. Nichols,et al.  Pulse Wave Analysis of the Aortic Pressure Waveform in Severe Left Ventricular Systolic Dysfunction , 2010, Circulation. Heart failure.

[151]  W. Nichols,et al.  McDonald's Blood Flow in Arteries: Theoretical, Experimental and Clinical Principles , 1998 .

[152]  F C Luft,et al.  Lactic acidosis update for critical care clinicians. , 2001, Journal of the American Society of Nephrology : JASN.

[153]  D. Paterson,et al.  ECG diagnosis of acute ischaemia and infarction: past, present and future. , 2006, QJM : monthly journal of the Association of Physicians.

[154]  I. Fridovich,et al.  Oxygen toxicity: a radical explanation. , 1998, The Journal of experimental biology.

[155]  Guillermo Martinez,et al.  Obstructive sleep apnoea , 2011 .

[156]  Angela M. Denner,et al.  Anorexia nervosa: perioperative implications , 2009 .

[157]  Greg Stratmann,et al.  Neurogenic and Humoral Vasoconstriction in Acute Pulmonary Thromboembolism , 2003, Anesthesia and analgesia.

[158]  Anke Schmitz,et al.  Evolution of air breathing: oxygen homeostasis and the transitions from water to land and sky. , 2013, Comprehensive Physiology.

[159]  P. Neuvonen,et al.  Effect of intravenous lipid emulsion on bupivacaine plasma concentration in humans , 2012, Anaesthesia.

[160]  B. Weinert,et al.  Invited review: Theories of aging. , 2003, Journal of applied physiology.

[161]  D. Hillman,et al.  The upper airway during anaesthesia. , 2003, British journal of anaesthesia.

[162]  M. Bell,et al.  Novel biomarkers of acute kidney injury and failure: clinical applicability. , 2012, British journal of anaesthesia.

[163]  A Mebazaa,et al.  Diastolic heart failure in anaesthesia and critical care. , 2007, British journal of anaesthesia.

[164]  D. Schoenfeld,et al.  Ventilation with lower tidal volumes as compared with traditional tidal volumes for acute lung injury and the acute respiratory distress syndrome. , 2000, The New England journal of medicine.

[165]  J. Mcdonnell,et al.  Stellate ganglion blockade for analgesia following upper limb surgery , 2011, Anaesthesia.

[166]  J. Low,et al.  Metabolic acidosis in the critically ill: Part 1. Classification and pathophysiology , 2008, Anaesthesia.

[167]  David J. Aidley,et al.  Nerve and muscle , 1981 .

[168]  Indu Ayappa,et al.  The upper airway in sleep: physiology of the pharynx. , 2003, Sleep medicine reviews.

[169]  Malte Kelm,et al.  Guidelines for pre-operative cardiac risk assessment and perioperative cardiac management in non-cardiac surgery. , 2009, European heart journal.

[170]  A. Klein,et al.  NICE guidance on CardioQ™ oesophageal Doppler monitoring , 2012 .

[171]  Sangeeta Mehta,et al.  Vasopressin versus norepinephrine infusion in patients with septic shock. , 2008, The New England journal of medicine.

[172]  D. Andreae,et al.  Regional anaesthesia to prevent chronic pain after surgery: a Cochrane systematic review and meta-analysis. , 2013, British journal of anaesthesia.

[173]  R. Bone,et al.  The pathogenesis of sepsis. , 1991, Annals of internal medicine.

[174]  Diana M. Jolliffe,et al.  Practical gastric physiology , 2009 .

[175]  J. Desborough The stress response to trauma and surgery. , 2000, British journal of anaesthesia.

[176]  Satoshi Gando,et al.  Microvascular thrombosis and multiple organ dysfunction syndrome , 2010, Critical care medicine.

[177]  Cenk Ayata,et al.  Spreading depression and neurovascular coupling. , 2013, Stroke.

[178]  S Schumann,et al.  Double-lumen tubes and auto-PEEP during one-lung ventilation. , 2016, British journal of anaesthesia.

[179]  David Couper,et al.  Race and Sex Differences in the Incidence and Prognostic Significance of Silent Myocardial Infarction in the Atherosclerosis Risk in Communities (ARIC) Study , 2016, Circulation.

[180]  J. C. Kraft,et al.  Pharmacogenetics and anaesthesia: the value of genetic profiling , 2012, Anaesthesia.

[181]  Amber E Barnato,et al.  A randomized trial of protocol-based care for early septic shock. , 2014, The New England journal of medicine.

[182]  G Hadjipavlou,et al.  Spinal cord injury and chronic pain , 2016 .

[183]  D. Georgopoulos,et al.  Effect of the Physical Properties of Isoflurane, Sevoflurane, and Desflurane on Pulmonary Resistance in a Laboratory Lung Model , 2006, Anesthesiology.

[184]  Harold L Rekate,et al.  The definition and classification of hydrocephalus: a personal recommendation to stimulate debate , 2008, Cerebrospinal Fluid Research.

[185]  M. Cecconi,et al.  A randomised controlled trial comparing transnasal humidified rapid insufflation ventilatory exchange (THRIVE) pre‐oxygenation with facemask pre‐oxygenation in patients undergoing rapid sequence induction of anaesthesia , 2017, Anaesthesia.

[186]  M Hawkins,et al.  Severe carbon monoxide poisoning: outcome after hyperbaric oxygen therapy. , 2000, British journal of anaesthesia.

[187]  Douglas C. Eaton,et al.  Vander's Renal Physiology , 2002 .

[188]  J. Levick,et al.  Cardiovascular responses in pathological situations , 1991 .

[189]  B. Colvin,et al.  ES04.01 
Physiology of haemostasis , 2004 .

[190]  Michelle Denton,et al.  Cervical cord injury and critical care , 2009 .

[191]  J. Dawson,et al.  Cardiac output monitoring: basic science and clinical application , 2008, Anaesthesia.

[192]  M. I. M Noble The cardiac cycle , 1979 .

[193]  A. V. Hoffbrand,et al.  HOFFBRAND'S ESSENTIAL HAEMATOLOGY , 2016 .

[194]  J. F. Nunn,et al.  Functional anatomy of the respiratory tract , 1987 .

[195]  P Enright,et al.  Multiple-breath nitrogen washout techniques: including measurements with patients on ventilators. , 1997, The European respiratory journal.

[196]  M. Cecconi,et al.  Noninvasive continuous cardiac output monitoring in perioperative and intensive care medicine. , 2015, British journal of anaesthesia.

[197]  A. Lumb,et al.  Chapter 8 – Diffusion of Respiratory Gases , 2017 .

[198]  Sushrut S Waikar,et al.  Established and emerging markers of kidney function. , 2012, Clinical chemistry.

[199]  C N McCollum,et al.  Preoperative cardiopulmonary exercise testing and risk of early mortality following abdominal aortic aneurysm repair , 2012, The British journal of surgery.

[200]  M. Garfield,et al.  Non-invasive Ventilation , 2001 .

[201]  Tom Peck,et al.  Pharmacology for Anaesthesia and Intensive Care , 2000 .

[202]  A. Carter,et al.  The effect of inner tube placement on resistance and work of breathing through tracheostomy tubes: a bench test , 2013, Anaesthesia.

[203]  M. Bellamy,et al.  Anaesthesia and morbid obesity , 2008 .

[204]  Chau Pl,et al.  New insights into the molecular mechanisms of general anaesthetics , 2010 .

[205]  Tamilselvi Ramanathan,et al.  Coronary blood flow , 2005 .

[206]  Helen Wilkinson,et al.  Saving Mothers’ Lives. Reviewing maternal deaths to make motherhood safer: 2006–2008 , 2011, BJOG : an international journal of obstetrics and gynaecology.

[207]  T. Walsh,et al.  Oxygen delivery and haemoglobin , 2004 .

[208]  P. Calverley,et al.  Control of breathing , 2005 .

[209]  S Malhotra,et al.  Anaesthesia for thyroid and parathyroid surgery , 2007 .

[210]  N. Morgan-Hughes,et al.  Aortic stenosis and non-cardiac surgery , 2005 .

[211]  Khairul Anuar Abdul Aziz,et al.  Is pH-stat or alpha-stat the best technique to follow in patients undergoing deep hypothermic circulatory arrest? , 2010, Interactive cardiovascular and thoracic surgery.

[212]  Matthew Ward,et al.  Blood pressure measurement , 2007 .

[213]  P. Booker,et al.  Monitoring depth of anaesthesia by EEG , 2003 .

[214]  K. Sanders,et al.  Regulation of smooth muscle excitation and contraction , 2008, Neurogastroenterology and motility : the official journal of the European Gastrointestinal Motility Society.

[215]  C L Gwinnutt,et al.  Early hospital care of severe traumatic brain injury , 2011, Anaesthesia.

[216]  K. Asehnoune,et al.  Blood pressure monitoring during arrhythmia: agreement between automated brachial cuff and intra-arterial measurements. , 2015, British journal of anaesthesia.

[217]  J. A. Llompart-Pou,et al.  Prognostic value of the pulmonary dead-space fraction during the early and intermediate phases of acute respiratory distress syndrome. , 2010, Respiratory care.

[218]  R. Hughes,et al.  Guillain-Barré syndrome , 2004, The Lancet.

[219]  T. Woodcock,et al.  Revised Starling equation and the glycocalyx model of transvascular fluid exchange: an improved paradigm for prescribing intravenous fluid therapy. , 2012, British journal of anaesthesia.

[220]  N. Mills,et al.  Assessment and classification of patients with myocardial injury and infarction in clinical practice , 2016, Heart.

[221]  P. Slinger,et al.  Lung protective strategies in anaesthesia , 2010, British Journal of Anaesthesia.

[222]  P. Turner,et al.  Instant Notes in Molecular Biology , 1998 .

[223]  Sarah Marsh,et al.  Neuromuscular disorders and anaesthesia. Part 1: generic anaesthetic management , 2011 .

[224]  Robert H. Anderson,et al.  Wilcox's Surgical Anatomy of the Heart , 2013 .

[225]  N. Soni,et al.  Size matters: choosing the right tracheal tube , 2012, Anaesthesia.

[226]  R. Blair,et al.  Mechanisms of cardiac pain. , 2015, Comprehensive Physiology.

[227]  K. Karkouti,et al.  Transfusion and risk of acute kidney injury in cardiac surgery. , 2012, British journal of anaesthesia.

[228]  Bryan Carr,et al.  Hypertriglyceridaemia-Induced Acute Pancreatitis: Is Plasmapheresis Really Indicated? 3C00 , 2014 .

[229]  R. Naeije,et al.  Physiology in medicine: importance of hypoxic pulmonary vasoconstriction in maintaining arterial oxygenation during acute respiratory failure , 2001, Critical care.

[230]  D J Buggy,et al.  Can anaesthetic and analgesic techniques affect cancer recurrence or metastasis? , 2012, British journal of anaesthesia.

[231]  R. Hannon,et al.  The role of carbohydrate drinks in pre-operative nutrition for elective colorectal surgery. , 2011, Annals of the Royal College of Surgeons of England.

[232]  K. P. Murphy,et al.  Janeway's immunobiology , 2007 .

[233]  J. Levick,et al.  Microvascular fluid exchange and the revised Starling principle. , 2010, Cardiovascular research.

[234]  R. Daneman,et al.  The blood–brain barrier in health and disease , 2012, Annals of neurology.

[235]  M. Sudhakar,et al.  Carbon dioxide transport , 2005 .

[236]  G. Hedenstierna,et al.  Airway closure, atelectasis and gas exchange during anaesthesia. , 2002, Minerva anestesiologica.

[237]  Andrew David Pitkin,et al.  Hyperbaric oxygen therapy , 2001 .

[238]  M. Sasada,et al.  Drugs in Anaesthesia and Intensive Care , 1990 .

[239]  M Smith,et al.  Systemic complications after head injury: a clinical review , 2007, Anaesthesia.

[240]  M. Lim,et al.  Anaesthesia for pituitary surgery , 2006, Journal of Clinical Neuroscience.

[241]  Jm Tom Pierce,et al.  Conventional and near-patient tests of coagulation , 2007 .

[242]  James A. Fraser,et al.  Reciprocal dihydropyridine and ryanodine receptor interactions in skeletal muscle activation , 2011, Journal of Muscle Research and Cell Motility.

[243]  M. Bennett,et al.  Bennett and Elliott's physiology and medicine of diving , 2003 .

[244]  J. Levick,et al.  Haemodynamics: flow, pressure and resistance , 2009 .

[245]  I. Moppett,et al.  Traumatic brain injury: assessment, resuscitation and early management. , 2007, British journal of anaesthesia.

[246]  D. Currow,et al.  The effect of ranitidine versus proton pump inhibitors on gastric secretions: a meta‐analysis of randomised control trials , 2009, Anaesthesia.

[247]  Burton David. Rose,et al.  Clinical Physiology of Acid-Base and Electrolyte Disorders , 1977 .

[248]  J J Brace,et al.  Theories of aging: an overview. , 1981 .

[249]  E. Ramos-Fernández,et al.  The blood-brain barrier: Structure, function and therapeutic approaches to cross it , 2014, Molecular membrane biology.

[250]  G. Britz,et al.  Regulation of Cerebral Blood Flow , 2011, International journal of vascular medicine.

[251]  M. Stone,et al.  Perioperative management of patients with cardiac implantable electronic devices. , 2011, British journal of anaesthesia.

[252]  A. Malhotra,et al.  Sleep · 2: Pathophysiology of obstructive sleep apnoea/hypopnoea syndrome , 2004, Thorax.

[253]  Wayne Mitzner,et al.  Airway smooth muscle: the appendix of the lung. , 2004, American journal of respiratory and critical care medicine.

[254]  John A. Kiernan,et al.  Barr's The Human Nervous System: An Anatomical Viewpoint , 10/e , 2008 .

[255]  P. G. Murphy,et al.  Anaesthesia and pituitary disease , 2011 .

[256]  Peter Brook,et al.  Oxford Handbook of Pain Management , 2011 .

[257]  Manuela Muratori,et al.  Gas diffusion and alveolar-capillary unit in chronic heart failure. , 2006, European heart journal.

[258]  I. M. Aguilera,et al.  Calcium and the anaesthetist , 2000, Anaesthesia.

[259]  A. Pearce,et al.  Assessment of suitability for lung resection , 2006 .

[260]  Melanie Maxwell,et al.  Complications of blood transfusion , 2006 .

[261]  M. Besser,et al.  Platelets for anaesthetists—part 1: physiology and pathology , 2015 .

[262]  M. Wild,et al.  PEEP and CPAP. , 2001, British medical journal.

[263]  N. Morgan-Hughes,et al.  Anaesthesia for a patient with a cardiac transplant , 2002 .

[264]  Ravi Mahajan,et al.  Acute lung injury: options to improve oxygenation , 2005, Continuing Education in Anaesthesia Critical Care & Pain.

[265]  R. Daneman,et al.  The blood-brain barrier. , 2015, Cold Spring Harbor perspectives in biology.

[266]  A. Dickenson,et al.  Spinal cord mechanisms of pain. , 2008, British journal of anaesthesia.

[267]  J Bromilow,et al.  Liver enzyme induction and inhibition: implications for anaesthesia , 2006, Anaesthesia.

[268]  L. Steiner,et al.  Monitoring the injured brain: ICP and CBF. , 2006, British journal of anaesthesia.

[269]  E. Ivers,et al.  Early Goal-Directed Therapy in the Treatment of Severe Sepsis and Septic Shock , 2001 .

[270]  Stephan Rohr,et al.  Role of gap junctions in the propagation of the cardiac action potential. , 2004, Cardiovascular research.

[271]  J. Handy,et al.  Physiological effects of hyperchloraemia and acidosis. , 2008, British journal of anaesthesia.

[272]  T. Woodcock,et al.  Plasma volume, tissue oedema, and the steady-state Starling principle , 2017 .

[273]  John H. Martin Neuroanatomy: Text and Atlas , 1989 .

[274]  G. Drummond,et al.  Distribution of blood flow and ventilation in the lung: gravity is not the only factor. , 2007, British journal of anaesthesia.

[275]  K. Karkouti,et al.  The pathophysiology and consequences of red blood cell storage , 2015, Anaesthesia.

[276]  Gavin D Smith,et al.  Management of supraventricular tachycardia using the Valsalva manoeuvre: a historical review and summary of published evidence , 2012, European journal of emergency medicine : official journal of the European Society for Emergency Medicine.

[277]  G. H. Mills,et al.  Respiratory physiology and anaesthesia , 2001 .

[278]  K. Pantopoulos,et al.  Iron metabolism and toxicity. , 2005, Toxicology and applied pharmacology.

[279]  K. Leslie,et al.  For Personal Use. Only Reproduce with Permission from the Lancet , 2022 .

[280]  D. Ross,et al.  Radioiodine therapy for hyperthyroidism. , 2011, The New England journal of medicine.

[281]  A. Bodenham,et al.  Pulmonary atelectasis in anaesthesia and critical care , 2014 .

[282]  John Kinsella,et al.  Intensive care unit-acquired weakness , 2012 .

[283]  S. Wu,et al.  Adler's Physiology of the Eye , 2002 .

[284]  Michel Struys,et al.  Pharmacokinetics in obese patients , 2004 .

[285]  Sarah Marsh,et al.  Neuromuscular disorders and anaesthesia. Part 2: specific neuromuscular disorders , 2011 .

[286]  Leanne Groban,et al.  Perioperative Management of Chronic Heart Failure , 2006, Anesthesia and analgesia.

[287]  L. Eriksson,et al.  Current concepts in neuromuscular transmission. , 2009, British journal of anaesthesia.