Real-time fMRI-based neurofeedback in depression

Depression is one of the leading causes of disability worldwide. Currently available treatment methods are not always effective in improving depression. There is thus a pressing need for the development of novel treatment methods. Neurofeedback training can potentially alleviate symptoms of depression. By providing depressed patients with feedback about the ongoing processes in their brain via functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI), patients can be trained to increase the activation in positive emotion processing areas by engaging in positive imagery. The advantages of this method are that it is non-invasive, offers an individually tailored approach without any side-effects and has the capability to target the neurobiological and cognitive pathways putatively mediating depression. The main aim of this thesis was to elaborate on pilot findings that fMRI-neurofeedback has potential as an add-on treatment tool for depression (Linden et al., 2012). In doing so, this thesis does not focus on confirming that fMRI-neurofeedback can improve symptoms of depression as the dataset employed here is part of a larger dataset of a currently still running clinical trial. Instead this work investigated the feasibility of a control group receiving feedback from a scene processing area and assessed whether fMRI-neurofeedback can indeed affect emotion processing areas that function abnormally in depression and enhance perceived self-efficacy. Sixteen moderately to severely depressed patients took part in a course of five neurofeedback training sessions in which all patients learned to up-regulate the activation in their individually localised target areas. The patients that had received feedback from a positive emotion area influenced the activity in a wider emotion regulation network than just their target area. Additionally, the acquisition of self-regulation skills significantly improved scores on a self-efficacy scale. These findings confirmed the ability of neurofeedback to target biological and cognitive pathways putatively mediating depression.

[1]  K. Nakayama,et al.  Binocular Rivalry and Visual Awareness in Human Extrastriate Cortex , 1998, Neuron.

[2]  E. A. Locke,et al.  The Relation of Self-Efficacy and Grade Goals to Academic Performance , 1987 .

[3]  A. Lozano,et al.  Deep Brain Stimulation for Treatment-Resistant , 2008 .

[4]  R. J Dolan,et al.  Dissociable Amygdala and Orbitofrontal Responses during Reversal Fear Conditioning , 2022 .

[5]  Michael Erb,et al.  Physiological self-regulation of regional brain activity using real-time functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI): methodology and exemplary data , 2003, NeuroImage.

[6]  Jing Wang,et al.  Decoding the neural representation of affective states , 2012, NeuroImage.

[7]  D. Kupfer,et al.  Acute and longer-term outcomes in depressed outpatients requiring one or several treatment steps: a STAR*D report. , 2006, The American journal of psychiatry.

[8]  J. Gross,et al.  Is Timing Everything? Temporal Considerations in Emotion Regulation , 2011, Personality and social psychology review : an official journal of the Society for Personality and Social Psychology, Inc.

[9]  Russell A. Epstein,et al.  The Parahippocampal Place Area Recognition, Navigation, or Encoding? , 1999, Neuron.

[10]  J. Russell.  A circumplex model of affect. , 1980 .

[11]  S. Lyubomirsky,et al.  Rethinking Rumination , 2008, Perspectives on psychological science : a journal of the Association for Psychological Science.

[12]  D. Haaga,et al.  Empirical status of cognitive theory of depression. , 1991, Psychological bulletin.

[13]  Dustin Scheinost,et al.  Biofeedback of Real-Time Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging Data from the Supplementary Motor Area Reduces Functional Connectivity to Subcortical Regions , 2011, Brain Connect..

[14]  Tom M. Mitchell,et al.  Learning to Decode Cognitive States from Brain Images , 2004, Machine Learning.

[15]  A. Beck.  The evolution of the cognitive model of depression and its neurobiological correlates. , 2008, The American journal of psychiatry.

[16]  P. Boesiger,et al.  Imbalance between Left and Right Dorsolateral Prefrontal Cortex in Major Depression Is Linked to Negative Emotional Judgment: An fMRI Study in Severe Major Depressive Disorder , 2008, Biological Psychiatry.

[17]  Nick Medford,et al.  Self-regulation of the anterior insula: Reinforcement learning using real-time fMRI neurofeedback , 2014, NeuroImage.

[18]  Brian Knutson,et al.  Dissociation of reward anticipation and outcome with event-related fMRI , 2001, Neuroreport.

[19]  Geraint Rees,et al.  Improving Visual Perception through Neurofeedback , 2012, The Journal of Neuroscience.

[20]  J. Mazziotta,et al.  Reduction of prefrontal cortex glucose metabolism common to three types of depression. , 1989, Archives of general psychiatry.

[21]  Murat Yücel,et al.  Volumetric MRI study of the insular cortex in individuals with current and past major depression. , 2010, Journal of affective disorders.

[22]  Joseph E LeDoux.  The Emotional Brain, Fear, and the Amygdala , 2003, Cellular and Molecular Neurobiology.

[23]  Gary H Glover,et al.  Modulation of subgenual anterior cingulate cortex activity with real‐time neurofeedback , 2011, Human brain mapping.

[24]  R. W. Rogers,et al.  The Self-Efficacy Scale: Construction and Validation , 1982 .

[25]  R. Kessler,et al.  Chronic stress, acute stress, and depressive symptoms , 1990, American journal of community psychology.

[26]  William A. Cunningham,et al.  Implicit and Explicit Evaluation: fMRI Correlates of Valence, Emotional Intensity, and Control in the Processing of Attitudes , 2004, Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience.

[27]  G. Aston-Jones,et al.  Noninvasive techniques for probing neurocircuitry and treating illness: vagus nerve stimulation (VNS), transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) and transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS) , 2010, Neuropsychopharmacology.

[28]  Wolfgang Grodd,et al.  Principles of a brain-computer interface (BCI) based on real-time functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) , 2004, IEEE Transactions on Biomedical Engineering.

[29]  A. Bandura.  Self-efficacy: toward a unifying theory of behavioral change. , 1977, Psychology Review.

[30]  J. Teasdale.  Negative thinking in depression: Cause, effect, or reciprocal relationship? , 1983 .

[31]  I. Blackburn,et al.  The Efficacy of Cognitive Therapy in Depression: A Treatment Trial Using Cognitive Therapy and Pharmacotherapy, each Alone and in Combination , 1981, British Journal of Psychiatry.

[32]  Rainer Goebel,et al.  Combining multivariate voxel selection and support vector machines for mapping and classification of fMRI spatial patterns , 2008, NeuroImage.

[33]  John D E Gabrieli,et al.  Control over brain activation and pain learned by using real-time functional MRI. , 2005, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America.

[34]  D. Schacter,et al.  The Brain's Default Network , 2008, Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences.

[35]  B. Zarowitz,et al.  MOOD DISORDERS: BIPOLAR AND MAJOR DEPRESSIVE DISORDERS , 2004 .

[36]  Adam Hampshire,et al.  Training the Emotional Brain: Improving Affective Control through Emotional Working Memory Training , 2013, The Journal of Neuroscience.

[37]  G. Fink,et al.  Neural activation during selective attention to subjective emotional responses , 1997, Neuroreport.

[38]  M S Cohen,et al.  Real-time functional magnetic resonance imaging. , 2001, Methods.

[39]  Z. Gu,et al.  A Sparse Representation-Based Algorithm for Pattern Localization in Brain Imaging Data Analysis , 2012, PloS one.

[40]  Bettina Sorger,et al.  Pattern classification predicts individuals’ responses to affective stimuli , 2012 .

[41]  M. Hamilton.  A RATING SCALE FOR DEPRESSION , 1960, Journal of neurology, neurosurgery, and psychiatry.

[42]  Stephan F. Taylor,et al.  Neural correlates of emotion regulation in psychopathology , 2007, Trends in Cognitive Sciences.

[43]  T. Brown,et al.  Current and lifetime comorbidity of the DSM-IV anxiety and mood disorders in a large clinical sample. , 2001, Journal of abnormal psychology.

[44]  Á. Pascual-Leone,et al.  Treatment of depression with transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS): A Review , 2009, Experimental Neurology.

[45]  A. Bandura.  Self-Efficacy: The Exercise of Control , 1997, Journal of Cognitive Psychotherapy.

[46]  N. Kanwisher,et al.  The fusiform face area subserves face perception, not generic within-category identification , 2004, Nature Neuroscience.

[47]  L. Carstensen,et al.  Emotional experience in everyday life across the adult life span. , 2000, Journal of personality and social psychology.

[48]  Stephen LaConte,et al.  Decoding fMRI brain states in real-time , 2011, NeuroImage.

[49]  Randolph Blake,et al.  The effects of transcranial magnetic stimulation on visual rivalry. , 2007, Journal of vision.

[50]  A. Bandura,et al.  Negative self-efficacy and goal effects revisited. , 2003, The Journal of applied psychology.

[51]  James J. Gross,et al.  Composure at Any Cost? The Cognitive Consequences of Emotion Suppression , 1999 .

[52]  Thérèse Bouffard-Bouchard,et al.  Influence of Self-Efficacy on Performance in a Cognitive Task , 1990 .

[53]  J. Luciano,et al.  Development and validation of the thought control ability questionnaire , 2005 .

[54]  J. Gross,et al.  The cognitive control of emotion , 2005, Trends in Cognitive Sciences.

[55]  D. Malone,et al.  Side effects of antidepressants: an overview. , 2006, Cleveland Clinic journal of medicine.

[56]  J. Gabrieli,et al.  Event-Related Activation in the Human Amygdala Associates with Later Memory for Individual Emotional Experience , 2000, The Journal of Neuroscience.

[57]  G. Niederehe,et al.  Depression and memory impairment: a meta-analysis of the association, its pattern, and specificity. , 1995, Psychological bulletin.

[58]  M. Thase,et al.  Can’t shake that feeling: event-related fMRI assessment of sustained amygdala activity in response to emotional information in depressed individuals , 2002, Biological Psychiatry.

[59]  E. Sell.  [Functional magnetic resonance]. , 2007, Medicina.

[60]  Maura L Furey,et al.  Relationship between amygdala responses to masked faces and mood state and treatment in major depressive disorder. , 2010, Archives of general psychiatry.

[61]  Sven Haller,et al.  Real-time fMRI feedback training may improve chronic tinnitus , 2010, European Radiology.

[62]  Andrew Simmons,et al.  Neural abnormalities during cognitive generation of affect in Treatment-Resistant depression , 2003, Biological Psychiatry.

[63]  J. Schwartz.  Relationship between goal discrepancy and depression. , 1974, Journal of consulting and clinical psychology.

[64]  David A Lewis,et al.  Neural and behavioral substrates of mood and mood regulation , 2002, Biological Psychiatry.

[65]  A. Damasio,et al.  Emotion in the perspective of an integrated nervous system 1 Published on the World Wide Web on 27 January 1998. 1 , 1998, Brain Research Reviews.

[66]  Yoshio Tanaka,et al.  Real-time functional MRI: development and emerging applications. , 2006, Magnetic resonance in medical sciences : MRMS : an official journal of Japan Society of Magnetic Resonance in Medicine.

[67]  R. Snaith,et al.  The hospital anxiety and depression scale. , 2013, Acta psychiatrica Scandinavica.

[68]  J. Markowitz,et al.  A comparison of nefazodone, the cognitive behavioral-analysis system of psychotherapy, and their combination for the treatment of chronic depression. , 2000, The New England journal of medicine.

[69]  D. Sheehan,et al.  The Mini-International Neuropsychiatric Interview (M.I.N.I.): the development and validation of a structured diagnostic psychiatric interview for DSM-IV and ICD-10. , 1998, The Journal of clinical psychiatry.

[70]  Bettina H. Bewernick,et al.  Neuromodulation for Treatment Resistant Depression: State of the Art and Recommendations for Clinical and Scientific Conduct , 2013, Brain Topography.

[71]  W. Singer,et al.  The constructive nature of vision: direct evidence from functional magnetic resonance imaging studies of apparent motion and motion imagery , 1998, The European journal of neuroscience.

[72]  Matthias J. Wieser,et al.  Brain Activations to Emotional Pictures are Differentially Associated with Valence and Arousal Ratings , 2010, Front. Hum. Neurosci..

[73]  M. Brammer,et al.  Pattern Classification of Sad Facial Processing: Toward the Development of Neurobiological Markers in Depression , 2008, Biological Psychiatry.

[74]  A. Bandura.  Regulation of cognitive processes through perceived self-efficacy. , 1989 .

[75]  H. Sackeim,et al.  Decreased regional brain metabolism after ect. , 2001, The American journal of psychiatry.

[76]  G. Goodwin,et al.  Cognitive deficits in depression: Possible implications for functional neuropathology , 2001, British Journal of Psychiatry.

[77]  J. Funovics,et al.  [Changes in brain metabolism in hepatic coma]. , 1977, Chirurgisches Forum fur experimentelle und klinische Forschung.

[78]  B. Lebowitz,et al.  Evaluation of outcomes with citalopram for depression using measurement-based care in STAR*D: implications for clinical practice. , 2006, The American journal of psychiatry.

[79]  H. Critchley.  Neural mechanisms of autonomic, affective, and cognitive integration , 2005, The Journal of comparative neurology.

[80]  Kymberly D. Young,et al.  Real-Time fMRI Neurofeedback Training of Amygdala Activity in Patients with Major Depressive Disorder , 2014, PloS one.

[81]  Lei Zhang,et al.  Machine learning for clinical diagnosis from functional magnetic resonance imaging , 2005, 2005 IEEE Computer Society Conference on Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition (CVPR'05).

[82]  M. Lowe,et al.  Antidepressant Effect on Connectivity of the Mood-Regulating Circuit: An fMRI Study , 2005, Neuropsychopharmacology.

[83]  D. Linden.  The Challenges and Promise of Neuroimaging in Psychiatry , 2012, Neuron.

[84]  M. Rothbart,et al.  Self-regulation and emotion in infancy. , 1992, New directions for child development.

[85]  D. F. Marks,et al.  Visual imagery differences in the recall of pictures. , 1973, British journal of psychology.

[86]  P. Fox,et al.  Cingulate function in depression: a potential predictor of treatment response , 1997, Neuroreport.

[87]  L. Staib,et al.  Hippocampal volume reduction in major depression. , 2000, The American journal of psychiatry.

[88]  S. Rauch,et al.  Neurobiology of emotion perception II: implications for major psychiatric disorders , 2003, Biological Psychiatry.

[89]  G. Kent,et al.  Self-efficacious control over reported physiological, cognitive and behavioural symptoms of dental anxiety. , 1987, Behaviour research and therapy.

[90]  M. Brammer,et al.  Neuroanatomy of verbal working memory as a diagnostic biomarker for depression , 2008, Neuroreport.

[91]  Janaina Mourao-Miranda,et al.  Neural correlates of sad faces predict clinical remission to cognitive behavioural therapy in depression , 2009, Neuroreport.

[92]  A. Amstadter,et al.  Emotion regulation and anxiety disorders. , 2008, Journal of anxiety disorders.

[93]  Karl J. Friston,et al.  Regional cerebral blood flow in depression measured by positron emission tomography: the relationship with clinical dimensions , 1993, Psychological Medicine.

[94]  Jens C. Pruessner,et al.  City living and urban upbringing affect neural social stress processing in humans , 2011, Nature.

[95]  Karl J. Friston,et al.  Dissociable Roles of Ventral and Dorsal Striatum in Instrumental Conditioning , 2004, Science.

[96]  R. Davidson,et al.  The representation and regulation of emotion in depression: Perspectives from affective neuroscience. , 2002 .

[97]  A. Anderson,et al.  Emotional memory: What does the amygdala do? , 1997, Current Biology.

[98]  Byung-Joo Ham,et al.  The neural substrates of affective processing toward positive and negative affective pictures in patients with major depressive disorder , 2007, Progress in Neuro-Psychopharmacology and Biological Psychiatry.

[99]  Seung-Schik Yoo,et al.  Functional MRI for neurofeedback: feasibility studyon a hand motor task , 2002, Neuroreport.

[100]  M. L. Furey,et al.  Functional anatomy of autobiographical memory recall deficits in depression , 2011, Psychological Medicine.

[101]  R. Gibbons,et al.  Self-efficacy and the control of anxious cognitions. , 1987, Journal of behavior therapy and experimental psychiatry.

[102]  Richard Levy,et al.  Cognitive control and brain resources in major depression: An fMRI study using the n-back task , 2005, NeuroImage.

[103]  K Murphy,et al.  fMRI in the presence of task-correlated breathing changes , 2009, NeuroImage.

[104]  Janaina Mourão Miranda,et al.  Classifying brain states and determining the discriminating activation patterns: Support Vector Machine on functional MRI data , 2005, NeuroImage.

[105]  M. Mintun,et al.  The default mode network and self-referential processes in depression , 2009, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences.

[106]  Nancy Kanwisher,et al.  A cortical representation of the local visual environment , 1998, Nature.

[107]  P. Ekman.  An argument for basic emotions , 1992 .

[108]  A. Laird,et al.  A meta‐analytic study of changes in brain activation in depression , 2008 .

[109]  K. Luan Phan,et al.  Functional Neuroanatomy of Emotion: A Meta-Analysis of Emotion Activation Studies in PET and fMRI , 2002, NeuroImage.

[110]  P. Holtzheimer,et al.  Neuropsychologic effects of neuromodulation techniques for treatment-resistant depression: A review , 2011, Brain Stimulation.

[111]  Sean M. Polyn,et al.  Beyond mind-reading: multi-voxel pattern analysis of fMRI data , 2006, Trends in Cognitive Sciences.

[112]  Eric Vermetten,et al.  Reduced volume of orbitofrontal cortex in major depression , 2002, Biological Psychiatry.

[113]  William A. Cunningham,et al.  Neural correlates of evaluation associated with promotion and prevention regulatory focus , 2005, Cognitive, affective & behavioral neuroscience.

[114]  Bettina Sorger,et al.  Real-Time Self-Regulation of Emotion Networks in Patients with Depression , 2012, PloS one.

[115]  Sun-Yong Chung,et al.  Is Alpha Wave Neurofeedback Effective with Randomized Clinical Trials in Depression? A Pilot Study , 2010, Neuropsychobiology.

[116]  R. Veit,et al.  Self‐regulation of regional cortical activity using real‐time fMRI: The right inferior frontal gyrus and linguistic processing , 2009, Human brain mapping.

[117]  Lawrence P. Panych,et al.  Increasing cortical activity in auditory areas through neurofeedback functional magnetic resonance imaging , 2006, Neuroreport.

[118]  Nikolaus Kriegeskorte,et al.  Comparison of multivariate classifiers and response normalizations for pattern-information fMRI , 2010, NeuroImage.

[119]  Jin Nam Choi,et al.  Links in the chain of adversity following job loss: how financial strain and loss of personal control lead to depression, impaired functioning, and poor health. , 2002, Journal of occupational health psychology.

[120]  J. O'Doherty,et al.  Reward representations and reward-related learning in the human brain: insights from neuroimaging , 2004, Current Opinion in Neurobiology.

[121]  R. Dantzer,et al.  From inflammation to sickness and depression: when the immune system subjugates the brain , 2008, Nature Reviews Neuroscience.

[122]  N. Meiran,et al.  Better Late Than Never? On the Dynamics of Online Regulation of Sadness Using Distraction and Cognitive Reappraisal , 2007, Personality & social psychology bulletin.

[123]  Ian H. Gotlib,et al.  Emotion regulation in depression: Relation to cognitive inhibition , 2010, Cognition & emotion.

[124]  B. Levine,et al.  The functional neuroanatomy of autobiographical memory: A meta-analysis , 2006, Neuropsychologia.

[125]  L. Rehm.  A self-control model of depression , 1977 .

[126]  R. Blair,et al.  Adapting to Dynamic Stimulus-Response Values: Differential Contributions of Inferior Frontal, Dorsomedial, and Dorsolateral Regions of Prefrontal Cortex to Decision Making , 2009, The Journal of Neuroscience.

[127]  A. Lawrence,et al.  Functional neuroanatomy of emotions: A meta-analysis , 2003, Cognitive, affective & behavioral neuroscience.

[128]  Stephan Riek,et al.  Interhemispheric switching mediates perceptual rivalry , 2000, Current Biology.

[129]  Cameron S. Carter,et al.  Multivariate Pattern Analysis of Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging Data Reveals Deficits in Distributed Representations in Schizophrenia , 2008, Biological Psychiatry.

[130]  D. Isaacowitz,et al.  Fixing Our Focus: Training Attention to Regulate Emotion , 2011, Personality and social psychology review : an official journal of the Society for Personality and Social Psychology, Inc.

[131]  Albert Bandura,et al.  Exercise of personal agency through the self-efficacy mechanism. , 1992 .

[132]  Yunqian Ma,et al.  Practical selection of SVM parameters and noise estimation for SVM regression , 2004, Neural Networks.

[133]  S. Rauch,et al.  Neurobiology of emotion perception I: the neural basis of normal emotion perception , 2003, Biological Psychiatry.

[134]  R. Larsen.  Toward a Science of Mood Regulation , 2000 .

[135]  C. Vázquez,et al.  Mood-congruent recall of affectively toned stimuli: A meta-analytic review , 1992 .

[136]  L. Parsons,et al.  Reciprocal limbic-cortical function and negative mood: converging PET findings in depression and normal sadness. , 1999, The American journal of psychiatry.

[137]  P A Turski,et al.  Metabolic rate in the right amygdala predicts negative affect in depressed patients , 1998, Neuroreport.

[138]  Ronald S Duman,et al.  Functional Biomarkers of Depression: Diagnosis, Treatment, and Pathophysiology , 2011, Neuropsychopharmacology.

[139]  Alan D. Lopez,et al.  Alternative projections of mortality and disability by cause 1990–2020: Global Burden of Disease Study , 1997, The Lancet.

[140]  J. O'Doherty,et al.  Direct Instrumental Conditioning of Neural Activity Using Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging-Derived Reward Feedback , 2007, The Journal of Neuroscience.

[141]  Evelyn C. Ferstl,et al.  Functional specialization within the anterior medial prefrontal cortex: a functional magnetic resonance imaging study with human subjects , 2003, Neuroscience Letters.

[142]  Stefan Pollmann,et al.  PyMVPA: a Python Toolbox for Multivariate Pattern Analysis of fMRI Data , 2009, Neuroinformatics.

[143]  E A Maguire,et al.  Neuroimaging studies of autobiographical event memory. , 2001, Philosophical transactions of the Royal Society of London. Series B, Biological sciences.

[144]  M. Beauregard,et al.  Effect of a psychoneurotherapy on brain electromagnetic tomography in individuals with major depressive disorder , 2009, Psychiatry Research: Neuroimaging.

[145]  Govind B Chavhan.  MRI Made Easy , 2007 .

[146]  Jonathan W. Peirce,et al.  PsychoPy—Psychophysics software in Python , 2007, Journal of Neuroscience Methods.

[147]  Dinggang Shen,et al.  Classifying spatial patterns of brain activity with machine learning methods: Application to lie detection , 2005, NeuroImage.

[148]  Tim Oates,et al.  A critique of multi-voxel pattern analysis , 2010 .

[149]  M. Phillips,et al.  Pattern Recognition and Functional Neuroimaging Help to Discriminate Healthy Adolescents at Risk for Mood Disorders from Low Risk Adolescents , 2012, PloS one.

[150]  Niels Birbaumer,et al.  Detection of Cerebral Reorganization Induced by Real-Time fMRI Feedback Training of Insula Activation , 2011, Neurorehabilitation and neural repair.

[151]  G. Winokur,et al.  All roads lead to depression: clinically homogeneous, etiologically heterogeneous. , 1997, Journal of affective disorders.

[152]  R. DeCharms,et al.  Quantification of Adverse Events Associated with Functional MRI Scanning and with Real-Time fMRI-Based Training , 2012, International Journal of Behavioral Medicine.

[153]  Mark S. George,et al.  Regional cerebral metabolism associated with anxiety symptoms in affective disorder patients , 2000, Biological Psychiatry.

[154]  K. Kerns,et al.  Investigation of a Direct Intervention for Improving Attention in Young Children With ADHD , 1999 .

[155]  Sven Haller,et al.  Real-time fMRI neurofeedback: Progress and challenges , 2013, NeuroImage.

[156]  W. Iacono,et al.  Risk for recurrence in depression. , 2007, Clinical psychology review.

[157]  R. Cabeza,et al.  Functional neuroimaging of autobiographical memory , 2007, Trends in Cognitive Sciences.

[158]  H. Kraemer,et al.  Untreated depression and hippocampal volume loss. , 2003, The American journal of psychiatry.

[159]  P. Boesiger,et al.  Altered Negative BOLD Responses in the Default-Mode Network during Emotion Processing in Depressed Subjects , 2009, Neuropsychopharmacology.

[160]  M. First,et al.  Structured Clinical Interview for DSM-IV-TR Axis I Disorders, Research version (SCID-I RV) , 2002 .

[161]  Niels Birbaumer,et al.  Volitional Control of Anterior Insula Activity Modulates the Response to Aversive Stimuli. A Real-Time Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging Study , 2010, Biological Psychiatry.

[162]  J. Singer,et al.  Cognitive, social, and physiological determinants of emotional state. , 1962, Psychological review.

[163]  M. Furey,et al.  Brain structural and functional abnormalities in mood disorders: implications for neurocircuitry models of depression , 2008, Brain Structure and Function.

[164]  A. Belousov,et al.  A flexible classification approach with optimal generalisation performance: support vector machines , 2002 .

[165]  Dirk B. Walther,et al.  Natural Scene Categories Revealed in Distributed Patterns of Activity in the Human Brain , 2009, The Journal of Neuroscience.

[166]  K. Kendler,et al.  Causal relationship between stressful life events and the onset of major depression. , 1999, The American journal of psychiatry.

[167]  R. Kessler,et al.  The effects of stressful life events on depression. , 1997, Annual review of psychology.

[168]  J. Peen,et al.  The current status of urban‐rural differences in psychiatric disorders , 2010, Acta psychiatrica Scandinavica.

[169]  M. Bar,et al.  The role of the parahippocampal cortex in cognition , 2013, Trends in Cognitive Sciences.

[170]  Geraint Rees,et al.  Neural correlates of consciousness in humans , 2002, Nature Reviews Neuroscience.

[171]  R W Cox,et al.  Real‐Time Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging , 1995, Magnetic resonance in medicine.

[172]  D. Tank,et al.  Brain magnetic resonance imaging with contrast dependent on blood oxygenation. , 1990, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America.

[173]  Skyler T. Hawk,et al.  Presentation and validation of the Radboud Faces Database , 2010 .

[174]  Michael X. Cohen,et al.  Deep Brain Stimulation to Reward Circuitry Alleviates Anhedonia in Refractory Major Depression , 2008, Neuropsychopharmacology.

[175]  Gary H. Glover,et al.  Learned regulation of spatially localized brain activation using real-time fMRI , 2004, NeuroImage.

[176]  Niels Birbaumer,et al.  Acquired Control of Ventral Premotor Cortex Activity by Feedback Training , 2012, Neurorehabilitation and neural repair.

[177]  Sangmoon Kim,et al.  Depression, anxiety, and resting frontal EEG asymmetry: a meta-analytic review. , 2006, Journal of abnormal psychology.

[178]  Mark Hallett,et al.  Self-modulation of primary motor cortex activity with motor and motor imagery tasks using real-time fMRI-based neurofeedback , 2012, NeuroImage.

[179]  Jeffrey C. Cooper,et al.  Individual differences in trait rumination and the neural systems supporting cognitive reappraisal , 2005, Cognitive, affective & behavioral neuroscience.

[180]  Irene Liu,et al.  Improved modulation of rostrolateral prefrontal cortex using real-time fMRI training and meta-cognitive awareness , 2011, NeuroImage.

[181]  M. Torrens.  Co-Planar Stereotaxic Atlas of the Human Brain—3-Dimensional Proportional System: An Approach to Cerebral Imaging, J. Talairach, P. Tournoux. Georg Thieme Verlag, New York (1988), 122 pp., 130 figs. DM 268 , 1990 .

[182]  B. Zimmerman.  Self-efficacy and educational development , 1995 .

[183]  M. Yücel,et al.  Structural brain abnormalities in major depressive disorder: a selective review of recent MRI studies. , 2009, Journal of affective disorders.

[184]  Tilo Kircher,et al.  Acquired self‐control of insula cortex modulates emotion recognition and brain network connectivity in schizophrenia , 2013, Human brain mapping.

[185]  K. Harkness,et al.  Life stress, the "kindling" hypothesis, and the recurrence of depression: considerations from a life stress perspective. , 2005, Psychological review.

[186]  D. Linden,et al.  Integrative neuroimaging in mood disorders , 2013, Current opinion in psychiatry.

[187]  J. Carlin,et al.  Financial stress, smoking cessation and relapse: results from a prospective study of an Australian national sample. , 2006, Addiction.

[188]  Andrew J. Tomarkenand,et al.  Frontal Brain Asymmetry and Depression: A Self-regulatory Perspective , 1998 .

[189]  P. Maclean.  The Limbic System ("Visceral Brain") in Relation to Central Gray and Reticulum of the Brain Stem: Evidence of Interdependence in Emotional Processes , 1955, Psychosomatic medicine.

[190]  S. Kosslyn.  Image and brain: the resolution of the imagery debate , 1994 .

[191]  Dimitri Van De Ville,et al.  Connectivity-based neurofeedback: Dynamic causal modeling for real-time fMRI☆ , 2013, Neuroimage.

[192]  Greg J. Siegle,et al.  Affective Interference: An Explanation for Negative Attention Biases in Dysphoria? , 2002, Cognitive Therapy and Research.

[193]  R. Ingram.  Developing Perspectives on the Cognitive–Developmental Origins of Depression: Back Is the Future , 2001, Cognitive Therapy and Research.

[194]  H. Mayberg.  Limbic-cortical dysregulation: a proposed model of depression. , 1997, The Journal of neuropsychiatry and clinical neurosciences.

[195]  M. Phillips,et al.  Pattern recognition analyses of brain activation elicited by happy and neutral faces in unipolar and bipolar depression , 2012, Bipolar disorders.

[196]  Niels Birbaumer,et al.  Using real-time fMRI to learn voluntary regulation of the anterior insula in the presence of threat-related stimuli. , 2012, Social cognitive and affective neuroscience.

[197]  S. Fleminger.  Depressive motor retardation , 1991 .

[198]  J. O'Doherty,et al.  Lights, Camembert, Action! The Role of Human Orbitofrontal Cortex in Encoding Stimuli, Rewards, and Choices , 2007, Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences.

[199]  Fred B. Bryant,et al.  Savoring: A New Model of Positive Experience , 2006 .

[200]  Frank Tong,et al.  The Functional Impact of Mental Imagery on Conscious Perception , 2008, Current Biology.

[201]  Peter Herscovitch,et al.  Neural and behavioral responses to tryptophan depletion in unmedicated patients with remitted major depressive disorder and controls. , 2004, Archives of general psychiatry.

[202]  S. Houle,et al.  Changes in regional brain glucose metabolism measured with positron emission tomography after paroxetine treatment of major depression. , 2001, The American journal of psychiatry.

[203]  Brent L. Hughes,et al.  Prefrontal-Subcortical Pathways Mediating Successful Emotion Regulation , 2008, Neuron.

[204]  G. Rees,et al.  Neural correlates of perceptual rivalry in the human brain. , 1998, Science.

[205]  S. Rauch,et al.  Deep Brain Stimulation of the Ventral Capsule/Ventral Striatum for Treatment-Resistant Depression , 2009, Biological Psychiatry.

[206]  J. Price,et al.  Low glial numbers in the amygdala in major depressive disorder , 2002, Biological Psychiatry.

[207]  N. Kanwisher,et al.  The Fusiform Face Area: A Module in Human Extrastriate Cortex Specialized for Face Perception , 1997, The Journal of Neuroscience.

[208]  B. Rovner,et al.  The Epidemiology of Major Depressive Disorder , 2003 .

[209]  D. Kavanagh,et al.  Prediction of outcome with group cognitive therapy for depression. , 1989, Behaviour research and therapy.

[210]  Joel P Rosenfeld,et al.  The Clinical Use of An Alpha Asymmetry Protocol in the Neurofeedback Treatment of Depression: Two Case Studies , 1997 .

[211]  A. Damasio,et al.  Subcortical and cortical brain activity during the feeling of self-generated emotions , 2000, Nature Neuroscience.

[212]  Klaus P. Ebmeier,et al.  Factors modifying the efficacy of transcranial magnetic stimulation in the treatment of depression: a review. , 2006, The Journal of clinical psychiatry.

[213]  Yihong Yang,et al.  Lack of ventral striatal response to positive stimuli in depressed versus normal subjects. , 2006, The American journal of psychiatry.

[214]  D. Schacter,et al.  Processing emotional pictures and words: Effects of valence and arousal , 2006, Cognitive, affective & behavioral neuroscience.

[215]  Jong-Hwan Lee,et al.  Neurofeedback fMRI-mediated learning and consolidation of regional brain activation during motor imagery , 2008 .

[216]  A. Wells,et al.  The Thought Control Questionnaire: a measure of individual differences in the control of unwanted thoughts. , 1994, Behaviour research and therapy.

[217]  G L Shulman,et al.  INAUGURAL ARTICLE by a Recently Elected Academy Member:A default mode of brain function , 2001 .

[218]  S. Hall,et al.  Social support and relapse: commonalities among alcoholics, opiate users, and cigarette smokers. , 1991, Addictive behaviors.

[219]  Philippe Pinel,et al.  Distributed and Overlapping Cerebral Representations of Number, Size, and Luminance during Comparative Judgments , 2004, Neuron.

[220]  Roberto Tatarelli,et al.  Anatomical and functional correlates in major depressive disorder: The contribution of neuroimaging studies , 2010, The world journal of biological psychiatry : the official journal of the World Federation of Societies of Biological Psychiatry.

[221]  J. Barling,et al.  Self-Efficacy Beliefs and Sales Performance , 1983 .

[222]  K. Krishnan,et al.  Magnetic resonance imaging of the caudate nuclei in depression. Preliminary observations. , 1992, Archives of general psychiatry.

[223]  Yufeng Wang,et al.  Discriminative Analysis of Brain Function at Resting-State for Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder , 2005, MICCAI.

[224]  V. Walsh,et al.  Right parietal TMS shortens dominance durations in binocular rivalry , 2010, Current Biology.

[225]  O. John,et al.  Emotion Regulation in Everyday Life. , 2006 .

[226]  Ira J. Roseman,et al.  Appraisals of emotion-eliciting events: Testing a theory of discrete emotions. , 1990 .

[227]  J. Gross.  The Emerging Field of Emotion Regulation: An Integrative Review , 1998 .

[228]  Arthur F Kramer,et al.  Training effects on dual-task performance: are there age-related differences in plasticity of attentional control? , 2005, Psychology and aging.

[229]  Mark Lau,et al.  Modulation of cortical-limbic pathways in major depression: treatment-specific effects of cognitive behavior therapy. , 2004, Archives of general psychiatry.

[230]  Efficacy of Second Generation Antidepressants in Late-Life Depression: A Meta-Analysis of the Evidence , 2010 .

[231]  Takeo Watanabe,et al.  Perceptual learning incepted by decoded fMRI neurofeedback without stimulus presentation , 2012 .

[232]  J. Gross,et al.  PERSONALITY PROCESSES AND INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES Emotion Regulation and Memory: The Cognitive Costs of Keeping One's Cool , 2004 .

[233]  J. R. Augustine.  Circuitry and functional aspects of the insular lobe in primates including humans , 1996, Brain Research Reviews.

[234]  R. Kessler,et al.  The economic burden of depression and the cost‐effectiveness of treatment , 2003, International journal of methods in psychiatric research.

[235]  R. Ivry,et al.  Please Scroll down for Article Social Neuroscience Modulation of the Ffa and Ppa by Language Related to Faces and Places Modulation of the Ffa and Ppa by Language Related to Faces and Places , 2022 .

[236]  G. Rees,et al.  Predicting the orientation of invisible stimuli from activity in human primary visual cortex , 2005, Nature Neuroscience.

[237]  Christian Igel,et al.  Evolutionary tuning of multiple SVM parameters , 2005, ESANN.

[238]  I. Gotlib,et al.  Attentional biases for negative interpersonal stimuli in clinical depression. , 2004, Journal of abnormal psychology.

[239]  D. Linden,et al.  Sad benefit in face working memory: An emotional bias of melancholic depression , 2011, Journal of affective disorders.

[240]  D. Cervone,et al.  Anchoring, Efficacy and Action: The Influence of Judgmental Heuristics on Self-Efficacy Judgments a , 1986 .

[241]  Cheng Xu,et al.  Decreased regional homogeneity in insula and cerebellum: A resting-state fMRI study in patients with major depression and subjects at high risk for major depression , 2010, Psychiatry Research: Neuroimaging.

[242]  C. MacLeod,et al.  Selective attention and emotional vulnerability: assessing the causal basis of their association through the experimental manipulation of attentional bias. , 2002, Journal of abnormal psychology.

[243]  J. Brewer,et al.  Human Neuroscience Hypothesis and Theory Article , 2022 .

[244]  Stephen R. Rapp,et al.  Self-efficacy, aftercare and relapse in a treatment program for alcoholics. , 1992, Journal of studies on alcohol.

[245]  Anna C Nobre,et al.  FEF TMS affects visual cortical activity. , 2006, Cerebral cortex.

[246]  S. Hollon,et al.  6 – Cognitive Therapy of Depression1 , 1979 .

[247]  D. Linden.  Biological psychiatry: time for new paradigms , 2013, British Journal of Psychiatry.

[248]  T. Dalgleish.  The emotional brain , 2004, Nature Reviews Neuroscience.

[249]  R. Veit,et al.  Self-regulation of local brain activity using real-time functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) , 2004, Journal of Physiology-Paris.

[250]  K. Lesch,et al.  Integrating neurobiological markers of depression. , 2010, Archives of general psychiatry.

[251]  Jeffrey L. Birk,et al.  Reduced Caudate and Nucleus Accumbens Response to Rewards in Unmedicated Subjects with Major Depressive Disorder , 2009 .

[252]  P. Lewinsohn,et al.  Probability of relapse after recovery from an episode of depression. , 1989, Journal of abnormal psychology.

[253]  R. Cabeza,et al.  Neural correlates of emotional processing in depression: changes with cognitive behavioral therapy and predictors of treatment response. , 2011, Journal of Psychiatric Research.

[254]  Jeffrey B Vancouver,et al.  When self-efficacy negatively relates to motivation and performance in a learning context. , 2006, The Journal of applied psychology.

[255]  R. Blake,et al.  Endogenous attention prolongs dominance durations in binocular rivalry. , 2005, Journal of vision.

[256]  S. Alborzian,et al.  Brain metabolic changes in major depressive disorder from pre- to post-treatment with paroxetine , 1999, Psychiatry Research: Neuroimaging.

[257]  T. Dorina Papageorgiou,et al.  Neurofeedback of two motor functions using supervised learning-based real-time functional magnetic resonance imaging , 2009, 2009 Annual International Conference of the IEEE Engineering in Medicine and Biology Society.

[258]  W. K. Simmons,et al.  Self-Regulation of Amygdala Activation Using Real-Time fMRI Neurofeedback , 2011, PloS one.

[259]  N. Kanwisher,et al.  Mental Imagery of Faces and Places Activates Corresponding Stimulus-Specific Brain Regions , 2000, Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience.

[260]  Ross A. Thompson,et al.  Emotion regulation: Conceptual foundations , 2007 .

[261]  R. Belmaker,et al.  Major depressive disorder. , 2008, The New England journal of medicine.

[262]  E. Rolls,et al.  The Orbitofrontal Cortex , 2019 .

[263]  Susanne Schweizer,et al.  Emotion-regulation strategies across psychopathology: A meta-analytic review. , 2010, Clinical psychology review.

[264]  A. T. Beck,et al.  Depression. Clinical, Experimental and Theoretical Aspects. New York (Hoeber) 1967. , 1967 .

[265]  R Cameron Craddock,et al.  Disease state prediction from resting state functional connectivity , 2009, Magnetic resonance in medicine.

[266]  A. Aleman,et al.  Regional brain volume in depression and anxiety disorders. , 2010, Archives of general psychiatry.

[267]  G. Glover,et al.  Resting-State Functional Connectivity in Major Depression: Abnormally Increased Contributions from Subgenual Cingulate Cortex and Thalamus , 2007, Biological Psychiatry.

[268]  D H Barlow,et al.  The influence of an illusion of control on panic attacks induced via inhalation of 5.5% carbon dioxide-enriched air. , 1989, Archives of general psychiatry.

[269]  Emily L. Dennis,et al.  Neural correlates of rumination in depression , 2010, Cognitive, affective & behavioral neuroscience.

[270]  H. Sackeim,et al.  Vagus nerve stimulation (VNS) for major depressive episodes: one year outcomes , 2002, Biological Psychiatry.

[271]  J. Kulisevsky,et al.  Transcranial magnetic stimulation for treating depression. , 2001, The Cochrane database of systematic reviews.

[272]  A. Caspi,et al.  Influence of Life Stress on Depression: Moderation by a Polymorphism in the 5-HTT Gene , 2003, Science.

[273]  Prabal K. Ghosh,et al.  A magnetic resonance imaging study of wheat drying kinetics , 2007 .

[274]  Robert W. Lent,et al.  Relation of self-efficacy expectations to academic achievement and persistence. , 1984 .