Necrotizing soft-tissue infections

Objective:To provide a contemporary review of the diagnosis and management of necrotizing soft-tissue infections. Data Sources:Scientific literature and internet sources. Study Selection:Major articles of importance in this area. Conclusions:The mortality for necrotizing soft-tissue infections appears to be decreasing, possibly due to improved recognition and earlier delivery of more effective therapy. Establishing a diagnosis and initiating treatment as soon as possible provides the best opportunity for a good outcome.

[1]  J. Freischlag,et al.  Treatment of necrotizing soft tissue infections. The need for a new approach. , 1985, American journal of surgery.

[2]  K. Hegmann,et al.  Cellulitis incidence in a defined population , 2005, Epidemiology and Infection.

[3]  R. Lamb,et al.  Gas Gangrene: I. A Collective Review , 1983 .

[4]  P. Blake,et al.  Disease caused by a marine Vibrio. Clinical characteristics and epidemiology. , 1979, The New England journal of medicine.

[5]  D. Mathieu,et al.  Cervical necrotizing fasciitis: clinical manifestations and management. , 1995, Clinical infectious diseases : an official publication of the Infectious Diseases Society of America.

[6]  P. Boscolo-Rizzo,et al.  Submandibular space infection: a potentially lethal infection. , 2009, International journal of infectious diseases : IJID : official publication of the International Society for Infectious Diseases.

[7]  A. Friedman,et al.  Necrotizing fasciitis: CT characteristics. , 1997, Radiology.

[8]  J. Rood,et al.  Virulence studies on chromosomal α‐toxin and Θ‐toxin mutants constructed by allelic exchange provide genetic evidence for the essential role of α‐toxin in Clostridium perfringens‐mediated gas gangrene , 1995, Molecular microbiology.

[9]  Dunn Js,et al.  THE METHOD OF SPREAD OF GAS GANGRENE INTO LIVING MUSCLE. , 1917 .

[10]  H. Stone,et al.  Synergistic Necrotizing Cellulitis , 1972, Annals of surgery.

[11]  N. Shyamalkumar,et al.  Long-Term Outcomes of Patients With Necrotizing Fasciitis , 2010, Journal of burn care & research : official publication of the American Burn Association.

[12]  J A Kufera,et al.  Necrotizing soft tissue infections. Risk factors for mortality and strategies for management. , 1996, Annals of surgery.

[13]  V. Descamps,et al.  Hippocrates on necrotising fasciitis , 1994, The Lancet.

[14]  H. Stone,et al.  Soft Tissue Infections , 2000, The American surgeon.

[15]  M. Malangoni,et al.  Determinants of mortality for necrotizing soft-tissue infections. , 1995, Annals of surgery.

[16]  Lewis Rt,et al.  Soft Tissue Infections , 1998, World Journal of Surgery.

[17]  D. King,et al.  Diagnosis of necrotizing soft tissue infections by computed tomography. , 2010, Archives of surgery.

[18]  R. Crichton,et al.  Deferoxamine augments growth and pathogenicity of Rhizopus, while hydroxypyridinone chelators have no effect. , 1994, Kidney international.

[19]  R. Olson,et al.  Effects of Clostridium perfringens recombinant and crude phospholipase C and theta-toxin on rabbit hemodynamic parameters. , 1995, The Journal of infectious diseases.

[20]  C. Price,et al.  Community-acquired methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus emerging as an important cause of necrotizing fasciitis. , 2006, Surgical infections.

[21]  Yu-Cheng Hong,et al.  LABORATORY RISK INDICATOR FOR NECROTIZING FASCIITIS SCORE AND THE OUTCOMES , 2008, ANZ journal of surgery.

[22]  Oscar D. Guillamondegui,et al.  Treatment of complicated skin and soft tissue infections. , 2009, Surgical Infections.

[23]  W. Tang,et al.  Necrotizing fasciitis in rheumatic diseases , 2006, Lupus.

[24]  L. Dans,et al.  Intravenous immunoglobulin for treating sepsis and septic shock. , 2002, The Cochrane database of systematic reviews.

[25]  M. Holland.  Application of the Laboratory Risk Indicator in Necrotising Fasciitis (LRINEC) Score to Patients in a Tropical Tertiary Referral Centre , 2009, Anaesthesia and intensive care.

[26]  V. Nizet,et al.  Genetic Locus for Streptolysin S Production by Group A Streptococcus , 2000, Infection and Immunity.

[27]  G. Bergman,et al.  Gadolinium-DTPA-enhanced magnetic resonance imaging of musculoskeletal infectious processes , 2004, Skeletal Radiology.

[28]  M. Malangoni.  Necrotizing soft tissue infections: are we making any progress? , 2001, Surgical infections.

[29]  Invasive group A streptococcal infections--United Kingdom, 1994. , 1994, MMWR. Morbidity and mortality weekly report.

[30]  G. Innes.  Gas gangrene: I. A collective review; II. A 15-year experience with hyperbaric oxygen: Hart GB, Lamb RC, Strauss MB J Trauma 23:991–1000 Nov 1983 , 1984 .

[31]  C. Tacket,et al.  Clinical features and an epidemiological study of Vibrio vulnificus infections. , 1984, The Journal of infectious diseases.

[32]  C. Goldsmith,et al.  Mortality in Patients with Necrotizing Fasciitis , 2007, Plastic and reconstructive surgery.

[33]  R. A. Myers,et al.  The microbiology of necrotizing soft tissue infections. , 2000, American journal of surgery.

[34]  T. Miclau,et al.  Necrotizing Soft Tissue Infections of the Extremities and Back , 2006, Clinical orthopaedics and related research.

[35]  C. Lee,et al.  Clostridial gas gangrene. II. Phospholipase C-induced activation of platelet gpIIbIIIa mediates vascular occlusion and myonecrosis in Clostridium perfringens gas gangrene. , 2000, The Journal of infectious diseases.

[36]  T. Kossmann,et al.  Differentiation of necrotizing fasciitis and cellulitis using MR imaging. , 1998, AJR. American journal of roentgenology.

[37]  D. Saltzman,et al.  Predictors of Mortality and Limb Loss in Necrotizing Soft Tissue Infections , 2013, The American surgeon.

[38]  Roberta B Carey,et al.  Methicillin-resistant S. aureus infections among patients in the emergency department. , 2006, The New England journal of medicine.

[39]  Shobita Rajagopalan,et al.  Serious infections in elderly patients with diabetes mellitus. , 2005, Clinical infectious diseases : an official publication of the Infectious Diseases Society of America.

[40]  K. Carroll,et al.  In vitro production of panton-valentine leukocidin among strains of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus causing diverse infections. , 2007, Clinical infectious diseases : an official publication of the Infectious Diseases Society of America.

[41]  D. Kaye.  Effect of Hyperbaric Oxygaen on Clostridia in vitro and in vivo.∗ , 1967 .

[42]  Li Basuino,et al.  The arginine catabolic mobile element and staphylococcal chromosomal cassette mec linkage: convergence of virulence and resistance in the USA300 clone of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus. , 2008, The Journal of infectious diseases.

[43]  G. Beilman,et al.  Hyperbaric oxygen does not improve outcome in patients with necrotizing soft tissue infection. , 2009, Surgical infections.

[44]  R. Greenberg,et al.  Zygomycosis (mucormycosis): emerging clinical importance and new treatments , 2004, Current opinion in infectious diseases.

[45]  G. Stoddard,et al.  Outcomes from treatment of necrotizing soft-tissue infections: results from the National Surgical Quality Improvement Program database. , 2010, American journal of surgery.

[46]  Brad Spellberg,et al.  Necrotizing fasciitis caused by community-associated methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus in Los Angeles. , 2005, The New England journal of medicine.

[47]  E. Bulger,et al.  Predicting death in necrotizing soft tissue infections: a clinical score. , 2009, Surgical infections.

[48]  D. Stevens,et al.  Impact of antibiotics on expression of virulence-associated exotoxin genes in methicillin-sensitive and methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus. , 2007, The Journal of infectious diseases.

[49]  R. Olson,et al.  Lethal effects and cardiovascular effects of purified alpha- and theta-toxins from Clostridium perfringens. , 1988, The Journal of infectious diseases.

[50]  R. Lewis,et al.  Use of admission serum lactate and sodium levels to predict mortality in necrotizing soft-tissue infections. , 2007, Archives of surgery.

[51]  F. Schildberg,et al.  Klebsiella pneumoniae Necrotizing F asciitis Associated w ith D iabetes a nd L iver C irrhosis , 2000 .

[52]  D. Kontoyiannis,et al.  Epidemiology and outcome of zygomycosis: a review of 929 reported cases. , 2005, Clinical infectious diseases : an official publication of the Infectious Diseases Society of America.

[53]  B. Sarani,et al.  Necrotizing fasciitis: current concepts and review of the literature. , 2009, Journal of the American College of Surgeons.

[54]  R. Lancefield.  Current knowledge of type-specific M antigens of group A streptococci. , 1962, Journal of immunology.

[55]  J. S. Mcnulty,et al.  Rhinocerebral mucormycosis: Predisposing factors , 1982, The Laryngoscope.

[56]  F. Meleney,et al.  PROGRESSIVE GANGRENOUS INFECTION OF THE SKIN AND SUBCUTANEOUS TISSUES, FOLLOWING OPERATION FOR ACUTE PERFORATIVE APPENDICITIS: A STUDY IN SYMBIOSIS. , 2022, Annals of surgery.

[57]  M. Caparon,et al.  Protein F, a fibronectin-binding protein, is an adhesin of the group A streptococcus Streptococcus pyogenes. , 1992, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America.

[58]  C. Cocanour,et al.  Necrotizing soft tissue infections in the intensive care unit , 2010, Critical care medicine.

[59]  R. Stanley,et al.  Immediate reconstruction of contaminated central craniofacial injuries with free autogenous grafts , 1989, The Laryngoscope.

[60]  P. Schlievert,et al.  Nonspecific and specific immunological mitogenicity by group A streptococcal pyrogenic exotoxins , 1978, Infection and immunity.

[61]  W. Whitehouse,et al.  Vaginal thrush treated with bis-2-hydroxy-5-chlorophenyl sulphide. , 1962, Lancet.

[62]  Young Ran Kim,et al.  RtxA1-induced expression of the small GTPase Rac2 plays a key role in the pathogenicity of Vibrio vulnificus. , 2010, The Journal of infectious diseases.

[63]  D. Rixen,et al.  The long-distance tertiary air transfer and care of tsunami victims: Injury pattern and microbiological and psychological aspects* , 2005, Critical care medicine.

[64]  J. Schoung,et al.  Use of vacuum-assisted wound closure to manage limb wounds in patients suffering from acute necrotizing fasciitis. , 2006, Asian journal of surgery.

[65]  C. Kauffman,et al.  Zygomycosis: An emerging fungal infection with new options for management , 2007, Current infectious disease reports.

[66]  M. Lapeyre-Mestre,et al.  Severe necrotizing soft‐tissue infections and nonsteroidal anti‐inflammatory drugs , 2008, Clinical and experimental dermatology.

[67]  Helen R. Saibil,et al.  Structural Basis of Pore Formation by the Bacterial Toxin Pneumolysin , 2005, Cell.

[68]  M. Wessels,et al.  Hyaluronic acid capsule modulates M protein-mediated adherence and acts as a ligand for attachment of group A Streptococcus to CD44 on human keratinocytes. , 1998, The Journal of clinical investigation.

[69]  R. Edwards,et al.  Specific C-terminal cleavage and inactivation of interleukin-8 by invasive disease isolates of Streptococcus pyogenes. , 2005, The Journal of infectious diseases.

[70]  A. Welch,et al.  STUDIES OF OPPORTUNISTIC FUNGI: I. INHIBITION OF RHIZOPUS ORYZAE BY HUMAN SERUM , 1961, The American journal of the medical sciences.

[71]  J. Majeski,et al.  Necrotizing Soft Tissue Infections: A Guide to Early Diagnosis and Initial Therapy , 2003, Southern medical journal.

[72]  Michael J Beach,et al.  Surveillance for waterborne disease and outbreaks associated with recreational water use and other aquatic facility-associated health events--United States, 2005-2006. , 2008, Morbidity and mortality weekly report. Surveillance summaries.

[73]  R. Kaul,et al.  Population-based surveillance for group A streptococcal necrotizing fasciitis: Clinical features, prognostic indicators, and microbiologic analysis of seventy-seven cases. Ontario Group A Streptococcal Study. , 1997, The American journal of medicine.

[74]  A. Lendorf,et al.  [Gas gangrene--a review]. , 1986, Nordisk medicin.

[75]  J. Morris,et al.  Cholera and other vibrioses in the United States. , 1985, The New England journal of medicine.

[76]  C. Lee,et al.  Clostridial gas gangrene. I. Cellular and molecular mechanisms of microvascular dysfunction induced by exotoxins of Clostridium perfringens. , 2000, The Journal of infectious diseases.

[77]  S. Cohle,et al.  Spontaneous clostridial myonecrosis. , 1992, Journal of Forensic Sciences.

[78]  F. Terrier,et al.  Necrotizing fasciitis of the head and neck: role of CT in diagnosis and management. , 1997, Radiology.

[79]  D. Kontoyiannis.  Decrease in the number of reported cases of zygomycosis among patients with diabetes mellitus: a hypothesis. , 2007, Clinical infectious diseases : an official publication of the Infectious Diseases Society of America.

[80]  J. Painter,et al.  Nonfoodborne Vibrio infections: an important cause of morbidity and mortality in the United States, 1997-2006. , 2008, Clinical infectious diseases : an official publication of the Infectious Diseases Society of America.

[81]  Chin-Ho Wong,et al.  The LRINEC (Laboratory Risk Indicator for Necrotizing Fasciitis) score: A tool for distinguishing necrotizing fasciitis from other soft tissue infections* , 2004, Critical care medicine.

[82]  R. Salcido,et al.  Necrotizing Fasciitis: Reviewing the Causes and Treatment Strategies , 2007, Advances in skin & wound care.

[83]  S. Black,et al.  Objective criteria may assist in distinguishing necrotizing fasciitis from nonnecrotizing soft tissue infection. , 2000, American journal of surgery.

[84]  C. Hatheway,et al.  Toxigenic clostridia , 1990, Clinical Microbiology Reviews.

[85]  J. Perkins,et al.  Skin and soft tissue infections. , 2006, Primary care.

[86]  J. Brazier,et al.  Soft tissue infections caused by spore-forming bacteria in injecting drug users in the United Kingdom , 2005, Epidemiology and Infection.

[87]  J. Mcnee,et al.  THE METHOD OF SPREAD OF GAS GANGRENE INTO LIVING MUSCLE , 1917, British medical journal.

[88]  Patchen Dellinger,et al.  Practice guidelines for the diagnosis and management of skin and soft-tissue infections. , 2005, Clinical infectious diseases : an official publication of the Infectious Diseases Society of America.

[89]  C. Cocanour,et al.  Mucormycosis in trauma patients. , 1992, The Journal of trauma.

[90]  S. Schnall,et al.  Necrotizing fasciitis: clinical presentation, microbiology, and determinants of mortality. , 2004, The Journal of bone and joint surgery. American volume.

[91]  N. Eke,et al.  Fournier's gangrene: a review of 1726 cases , 2000, The British journal of surgery.

[92]  H. Bruch,et al.  New Insights into the Epidemiology and Etiology of Fournier’s Gangrene: A Review of 33 Patients , 2009, Infection.

[93]  H. Hayashi,et al.  The virR gene, a member of a class of two-component response regulators, regulates the production of perfringolysin O, collagenase, and hemagglutinin in Clostridium perfringens , 1994, Journal of bacteriology.

[94]  J. Desmyter.  Gas Gangrene , 1940, Belgisch tijdschrift voor geneeskunde.

[95]  J. Miskoff,et al.  Otolaryngologic critical care. , 2003, Critical care clinics.

[96]  P. Butler,et al.  Hyperbaric oxygen as adjuvant therapy in the management of necrotizing fasciitis. , 2005, American journal of surgery.

[97]  A. K. Rafiqueuddin,et al.  Mucormycosis (zygomycosis). , 1994, Tropical doctor.

[98]  R. Markert,et al.  Survival factors in rhino-orbital-cerebral mucormycosis. , 1994, Survey of ophthalmology.

[99]  S. Bhakdi,et al.  Staphylococcal α Toxin , 2000 .

[100]  M. Wessels,et al.  Group A Streptococcus tissue invasion by CD44-mediated cell signalling , 2001, Nature.