Sensing Human Walking: Algorithms and Techniques for Extracting and Modeling Locomotion

This chapter reports the most popular methods used to evaluate the main properties of human walking. We will mainly focus on: global parameters (such as step length, frequency, gait asymmetry and regularity), kinematic parameters (such as joint angles depending on time), dynamic values (such as the ground reaction force and the joint torques) and muscle activity (such as muscle tension). A large set of sensors have been introduced in order to analyze human walking in biomechanics and other connected domains such as robotics, human motion sciences, computer animation... Among all these sensors, we will focus on: mono-point sensors (such as accelerometers), multi-point sensors (such as flock of sensors, opto-electronic systems and video analysis), and dynamic sensors (such as force plates or electromyographic sensors). For the most popular systems, we will describe the most popular methods and algorithms used to compute the parameters described above. All along the chapter we will explain how these algorithms could provide original methods for helping people to design natural navigation in VR.

[1]  Bobby Bodenheimer,et al.  The Process of Motion Capture: Dealing with the Data , 1997, Computer Animation and Simulation.

[2]  B. Auvinet,et al.  Reference data for normal subjects obtained with an accelerometric device. , 2002, Gait & posture.

[3]  Sahan Gamage,et al.  New least squares solutions for estimating the average centre of rotation and the axis of rotation. , 2002, Journal of biomechanics.

[4]  M. V. D. Panne,et al.  SIMBICON: simple biped locomotion control , 2007, SIGGRAPH 2007.

[5]  Guillaume Rao,et al.  A two-step EMG-and-optimization process to estimate muscle force during dynamic movement. , 2010, Journal of biomechanics.

[6]  Maud Marchal,et al.  Joyman: A human-scale joystick for navigating in virtual worlds , 2011, 2011 IEEE Symposium on 3D User Interfaces (3DUI).

[7]  J J O'Connor,et al.  Bone position estimation from skin marker co-ordinates using global optimisation with joint constraints. , 1999, Journal of biomechanics.

[8]  Anne-Hélène Olivier,et al.  Velocity/curvature relations along a single turn in human locomotion , 2007, Neuroscience Letters.

[9]  Anatole Lécuyer,et al.  Can Camera Motions Improve the Perception of Traveled Distance in Virtual Environments? , 2009, 2009 IEEE Virtual Reality Conference.

[10]  Christopher L. Vaughan,et al.  Dynamics of human gait , 1992 .

[11]  B. Nigg,et al.  Biomechanics of the musculo-skeletal system , 1995 .

[12]  D Thalmann,et al.  Using skeleton-based tracking to increase the reliability of optical motion capture. , 2001, Human movement science.

[13]  Daniel Thalmann,et al.  Human Motion Capture Driven by Orientation Measurements , 1999, Presence: Teleoperators & Virtual Environments.

[14]  Charles Pontonnier,et al.  From motion capture to muscle forces in the human elbow aimed at improving the ergonomics of workstations , 2010 .

[15]  B. E. Maki,et al.  Gait Changes in Older Adults: Predictors of Falls or Indicators of Fear? , 1997, Journal of the American Geriatrics Society.

[16]  Maud Marchal,et al.  Shake-your-head: revisiting walking-in-place for desktop virtual reality , 2010, VRST '10.

[17]  W. Taylor,et al.  A survey of formal methods for determining the centre of rotation of ball joints. , 2006, Journal of biomechanics.

[18]  Matthew P. Reed,et al.  Methods for Measuring and Representing Automobile Occupant Posture , 1999 .

[19]  Jessica K. Hodgins,et al.  Tracking and Modifying Upper-body Human Motion Data with Dynamic Simulation , 1999, Computer Animation and Simulation.

[20]  Marjorie A. England.  Neural Crest and Craniofacial Disorders: Genetic Aspects. , 1989 .

[21]  Hartmut Witte,et al.  ISB recommendation on definitions of joint coordinate system of various joints for the reporting of human joint motion--part I: ankle, hip, and spine. International Society of Biomechanics. , 2002, Journal of biomechanics.

[22]  Bryan Buchholz,et al.  ISB recommendation on definitions of joint coordinate systems of various joints for the reporting of human joint motion--Part II: shoulder, elbow, wrist and hand. , 2005, Journal of biomechanics.

[23]  Steven Morrison,et al.  Age-related differences in head and trunk coordination during walking. , 2005, Human movement science.

[24]  Lillian Y. Chang,et al.  Constrained least-squares optimization for robust estimation of center of rotation. , 2007, Journal of biomechanics.

[25]  P Dabnichki,et al.  A three-dimensional biomechanical comparison between turning strategies during the stance phase of walking. , 2005, Human movement science.

[26]  É. Marey,et al.  La machine animale. Locomotion terrestre et aérienne , 1886 .

[27]  Franck Multon,et al.  Dynamic analysis of human walking , 1997, Computer Animation and Simulation.

[28]  Mohsen Makhsous.  Improvements, Validation and Adaptation of a Shoulder Model , 1999 .

[29]  Maud Marchal,et al.  "Shoes-Your-Style": Changing Sound of Footsteps to Create New Walking Experiences , 2010 .

[30]  Ulman Lindenberger,et al.  Adult age differences in familiarization to treadmill walking within virtual environments. , 2010, Gait & posture.

[31]  J. Hidler,et al.  Biomechanics of overground vs. treadmill walking in healthy individuals. , 2008, Journal of applied physiology.

[32]  A. Seireg,et al.  Biochemical Analysis Of The Musculoskeletal Structure For Medicine And Sports , 1989 .

[33]  Maud Marchal,et al.  Joyman: an immersive and entertaining interface for virtual locomotion , 2011, SA '11.

[34]  H. Sadeghi.  Local or global asymmetry in gait of people without impairments. , 2003, Gait & posture.

[35]  A. Berthoz,et al.  Head stabilization during various locomotor tasks in humans , 1990, Experimental Brain Research.

[36]  R. Fitzpatrick,et al.  Acceleration patterns of the head and pelvis when walking on level and irregular surfaces. , 2003, Gait & posture.

[37]  R. Kulpa,et al.  Balancing deceit and disguise: how to successfully fool the defender in a 1 vs. 1 situation in rugby. , 2010, Human movement science.

[38]  J. Y. S. Luh,et al.  On-Line Computational Scheme for Mechanical Manipulators , 1980 .

[39]  S Toksvig-Larsen,et al.  Validation of a functional method for the estimation of hip joint centre location. , 1999, Journal of biomechanics.

[40]  Maud Marchal,et al.  The King-Kong Effects: Improving sensation of walking in VR with visual and tactile vibrations at each step , 2012, 2012 IEEE Symposium on 3D User Interfaces (3DUI).

[41]  M. Orendurff,et al.  The kinematics and kinetics of turning: limb asymmetries associated with walking a circular path. , 2006, Gait & posture.

[42]  Pascal Fua,et al.  Local and Global Skeleton Fitting Techniques for Optical Motion Capture , 1998, CAPTECH.