Using Genetic Algorithm and Wisdom of Artificial Crowds to Find Hidden Data in DNA

Recent advances in genetic engineering have allowed the insertion of artificial DNA strands into the living cells of organisms. These advances made it possible to insert information into a DNA sequence for the purpose of data storage, watermarking, or communication of secret messages by using substitution ciphers and other methods. While many algorithms have been developed to hide and insert messages into DNA sequences, there are only few approaches of discovering such messages. The ability to detect, extract, and decode messages from DNA is important for forensic data collection and for data security. One of our goals is the development of a software toolkit that employs a combination of several algorithms to decode a message written in DNA symbols. Genetic Algorithms (GA) have traditionally not been successful in solving substitution ciphers, but we have developed a new approach that uses a GA in combination with the Wisdom of Artificial Crowds post processing Algorithm to

[1]  Edmund A. Mennis The Wisdom of Crowds: Why the Many Are Smarter than the Few and How Collective Wisdom Shapes Business, Economies, Societies, and Nations , 2006 .

[2]  M. Tomita,et al.  Alignment‐Based Approach for Durable Data Storage into Living Organisms , 2007, Biotechnology progress.

[3]  Keshav P. Dahal,et al.  Review on the Advancements of DNA Cryptography , 2010, ArXiv.

[4]  George W. Hart To decode short cryptograms , 1994, CACM.

[5]  Michael Lucks,et al.  A Constraint Satisfaction Algorithm for the Automated Decryption of Simple Substitution Ciphers , 1988, CRYPTO.

[6]  Simon Singh,et al.  The Code Book: The Evolution of Secrecy from Mary, Queen of Scots, to Quantum Cryptography , 1999 .

[7]  S. Jiao,et al.  Hiding data in DNA of living organisms , 2009 .

[8]  Azriel Rosenfeld,et al.  Breaking substitution ciphers using a relaxation algorithm , 1979, CACM.

[9]  F. Crick,et al.  Molecular Structure of Nucleic Acids: A Structure for Deoxyribose Nucleic Acid , 1974, Nature.

[10]  David A. Huffman,et al.  A method for the construction of minimum-redundancy codes , 1952, Proceedings of the IRE.

[11]  J. van Leeuwen,et al.  Information Hiding , 1999, Lecture Notes in Computer Science.

[12]  Mohey M. Hadhoud,et al.  Data hiding based on contrast mapping using DNA medium , 2011, Int. Arab J. Inf. Technol..

[13]  Ewan Birney,et al.  Towards practical, high-capacity, low-maintenance information storage in synthesized DNA , 2013, Nature.

[14]  Geoff C. Smith,et al.  Some possible codes for encrypting data in DNA , 2003, Biotechnology Letters.

[15]  Martin Schmiedecker,et al.  Digital Forensics and Cyber Crime , 2017, Lecture Notes of the Institute for Computer Sciences, Social Informatics and Telecommunications Engineering.

[16]  Shuhong Jiao,et al.  Code for encryption hiding data into genomic DNA of living organisms , 2008, 2008 9th International Conference on Signal Processing.

[17]  F. Crick,et al.  Directed Panspermia , 2005 .

[18]  J. H. Matthaei,et al.  Ribonucleotide composition of the genetic code. , 1962, Biochemical and biophysical research communications.

[19]  Akimitsu Okamoto,et al.  Public-key system using DNA as a one-way function for key distribution. , 2005, Bio Systems.

[20]  G. Church,et al.  Next-Generation Digital Information Storage in DNA , 2012, Science.

[21]  Menachem Ailenberg,et al.  An improved Huffman coding method for archiving text, images, and music characters in DNA. , 2009, BioTechniques.

[22]  Dominik Heider,et al.  DNA-based watermarks using the DNA-Crypt algorithm , 2007, BMC Bioinformatics.

[23]  S. Brenner,et al.  Genetic Code: The ‘Nonsense’ Triplets for Chain Termination and their Suppression , 1965, Nature.

[24]  Pak Chung Wong,et al.  Organic data memory using the DNA approach , 2003, CACM.

[25]  Catherine Taylor Clelland,et al.  Hiding messages in DNA microdots , 1999, Nature.

[26]  Thomas H Segall-Shapiro,et al.  Creation of a Bacterial Cell Controlled by a Chemically Synthesized Genome , 2010, Science.

[27]  SpillmanRichard,et al.  Use of a genetic algorithm in the cryptanalysis of simple substitution ciphers , 1993 .

[28]  Sam Hasinoff Solving Substitution Ciphers , 2007 .

[29]  Masanori Arita,et al.  Secret Signatures Inside Genomic DNA , 2004, Biotechnology progress.

[30]  A. Rosenblatt The code book: the evolution of secrecy from Mary Queen of Scots to quantum cryptography [Books] , 2000, IEEE Spectrum.

[31]  C Bancroft,et al.  Long-Term Storage of Information in DNA , 2001, Science.

[32]  Amr M. Youssef,et al.  An Artificial Life Technique for the Cryptanalysis of Simple Substitution Ciphers , 2006, 2006 Canadian Conference on Electrical and Computer Engineering.

[33]  Reihaneh Safavi-Naini,et al.  Automated Cryptanalysis of Substitution Ciphers , 1993, Cryptologia.

[34]  Bethany Delman Genetic algorithms in cryptography , 2004 .