Biology and pathogenesis of Acanthamoeba

Acanthamoeba is a free-living protist pathogen, capable of causing a blinding keratitis and fatal granulomatous encephalitis. The factors that contribute to Acanthamoeba infections include parasite biology, genetic diversity, environmental spread and host susceptibility, and are highlighted together with potential therapeutic and preventative measures. The use of Acanthamoeba in the study of cellular differentiation mechanisms, motility and phagocytosis, bacterial pathogenesis and evolutionary processes makes it an attractive model organism. There is a significant emphasis on Acanthamoeba as a Trojan horse of other microbes including viral, bacterial, protists and yeast pathogens.

[1]  J. Jonckheere,et al.  A Century of Research on the Amoeboflagellate Genus Naegleria , 2002 .

[2]  E. Cohen,et al.  Acanthamoeba Keratitis: A Parasite on the Rise , 2007, Cornea.

[3]  G. Booton,et al.  Identification and Distribution of Acanthamoeba Species Genotypes Associated with Nonkeratitis Infections , 2005, Journal of Clinical Microbiology.

[4]  Neff Rj,et al.  The biochemistry of amoebic encystment. , 1969 .

[5]  J. Niederkorn,et al.  Modulation of corneal and stromal matrix metalloproteinase by the mannose-induced Acanthamoeba cytolytic protein. , 2008, Experimental eye research.

[6]  R. Weisman.  Differentiation in Acanthamoeba castellanii. , 1976, Annual review of microbiology.

[7]  M. Shibayama,et al.  Human Amebiasis: Breaking the Paradigm? , 2010, International journal of environmental research and public health.

[8]  N. Khan,et al.  Acanthamoeba castellanii: high antibody prevalence in racially and ethnically diverse populations. , 2009, Experimental parasitology.

[9]  A. Martínez.  Infection of the central nervous system due to Acanthamoeba. , 1991, Reviews of infectious diseases.

[10]  D. Till,et al.  Immunity to pathogenic free-living amoebae: role of humoral antibody , 1980, Infection and immunity.

[11]  C. Clark.  Royal Society of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene meeting at Manson House, London, 19 February 1998. Amoebic disease. Entamoeba dispar, an organism reborn. , 1998, Transactions of the Royal Society of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene.

[12]  J. McCulley,et al.  The role of contact lenses, trauma, and Langerhans cells in a Chinese hamster model of Acanthamoeba keratitis. , 1993, Investigative ophthalmology & visual science.

[13]  H. Aspöck,et al.  Anti-Acanthamoeba IgG, IgM, and IgA immunoreactivities in correlation to strain pathogenicity , 2001, Parasitology Research.

[14]  L. Cerva.  Acanthamoeba culbertsoni and Naegleria fowleri: occurrence of antibodies in man. , 1989, Journal of hygiene, epidemiology, microbiology, and immunology.

[15]  Szymon Kaczanowski,et al.  Evolution of apoptosis-like programmed cell death in unicellular protozoan parasites , 2011, Parasites & Vectors.

[16]  G. Visvesvara,et al.  Multiplex Real-Time PCR Assay for Simultaneous Detection of Acanthamoeba spp., Balamuthia mandrillaris, and Naegleria fowleri , 2006, Journal of Clinical Microbiology.

[17]  K. Kim,et al.  Acanthamoeba castellanii Induces Host Cell Death via a Phosphatidylinositol 3-Kinase-Dependent Mechanism , 2005, Infection and Immunity.

[18]  H. Jeong,et al.  Molecular cloning and characterization of a cDNA encoding a laminin-binding protein (AhLBP) from Acanthamoeba healyi. , 2004, Experimental parasitology.

[19]  D E Derry,et al.  The Dates of Union of some Epiphyses in Egyptians from X-ray Photographs. , 1931, Journal of anatomy.

[20]  P. Beckingsale,et al.  Acanthamoeba keratitis cluster: an increase in Acanthamoeba keratitis in Australia , 2009, Clinical & experimental ophthalmology.

[21]  J. Pellegrin,et al.  The neuraminidases of Trypanosoma cruzi and Acanthamoeba castellanii are immunologically related. , 1992, Tropical medicine and parasitology : official organ of Deutsche Tropenmedizinische Gesellschaft and of Deutsche Gesellschaft fur Technische Zusammenarbeit.

[22]  P. Cappuccinelli,et al.  ADP and Other Metabolites Released from Acanthamoeba castellanii Lead to Human Monocytic Cell Death through Apoptosis and Stimulate the Secretion of Proinflammatory Cytokines , 2002, Infection and Immunity.

[23]  G. Visvesvara,et al.  Amoebic encephalitis due to Sappinia diploidea. , 2001, JAMA.

[24]  C. Clark,et al.  A Redescription of Entamoeba Histolytica Schaudinn, 1903 (Emended Walker, 1911) Separating It From Entamoeba Dispar Brumpt, 1925 1 , 1993, The Journal of eukaryotic microbiology.

[25]  Gilbert Greub,et al.  Microorganisms Resistant to Free-Living Amoebae , 2004, Clinical Microbiology Reviews.

[26]  P. Rama,et al.  Isolation and genotyping of Acanthamoeba strains from corneal infections in Italy. , 2010, Journal of medical microbiology.

[27]  N. Khan.  Acanthamoeba: biology and increasing importance in human health. , 2006, FEMS microbiology reviews.

[28]  G. Cabral,et al.  Acanthamoeba culbertsoni: analysis of amoebic adhesion and invasion on extracellular matrix components collagen I and laminin-1. , 2010, Experimental parasitology.

[29]  G. Visvesvara,et al.  Granulomatous brain tumor caused by Acanthamoeba. Case report. , 1986, Journal of neurosurgery.

[30]  A. Ferrante,et al.  Elastase in the pathogenic free-living amoebae Naegleria and Acanthamoeba spp , 1988, Infection and immunity.

[31]  D. Toney,et al.  Resistance of Acanthamoeba species to complement lysis. , 1998, The Journal of parasitology.

[32]  G. Cabral,et al.  Acanthamoeba spp. as Agents of Disease in Humans , 2003, Clinical Microbiology Reviews.

[33]  K. Lonergan,et al.  The mitochondrial DNA of the amoeboid protozoon, Acanthamoeba castellanii: complete sequence, gene content and genome organization. , 1995, Journal of molecular biology.

[34]  R. N. Band,et al.  The cell cycle and induced amitosis in Acanthamoeba. , 1973, The Journal of protozoology.

[35]  C. Carratelli,et al.  Defense mechanisms of IFN-gamma and LPS-primed murine microglia against Acanthamoeba castellanii infection. , 2003, International immunopharmacology.

[36]  C. Gilks.  Royal Society of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene meeting at Manson House, London, 12 December 1996. HIV and pneumococcal infection in Africa. Clinical, epidemiological and preventative aspects. , 1997, Transactions of the Royal Society of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene.

[37]  J. McCulley,et al.  Antibody-dependent neutrophil-mediated killing of Acanthamoeba castellanii. , 1994, International journal for parasitology.

[38]  S. Warit,et al.  Thai Acanthamoeba isolate (T4) induced apoptotic death in neuroblastoma cells via the Bax-mediated pathway. , 2010, Parasitology international.

[39]  D. Dearborn,et al.  Lipophosphonoglycan of the plasma membrane of Acanthamoeba castellanii. Fatty acid composition. , 1974, The Journal of biological chemistry.

[40]  F. Lösch.  Massenhafte Entwickelung von Amöben im Dickdarm , 1875, Archiv für pathologische Anatomie und Physiologie und für klinische Medicin.

[41]  W. Mathers,et al.  Diagnosis of Acanthamoeba Keratitis In Vivo with Confocal Microscopy , 1995, Cornea.

[42]  J. McCulley,et al.  Apoptosis as a mechanism of cytolysis of tumor cells by a pathogenic free-living amoeba. , 1994, Infection and immunity.

[43]  N. Khan,et al.  Carbohydrate analysis of Acanthamoeba castellanii. , 2009, Experimental parasitology.

[44]  J. Niederkorn,et al.  Oral Immunization with Acanthamoeba castellanii Mannose-Binding Protein Ameliorates Amoebic Keratitis , 2006, Infection and Immunity.

[45]  S. Scheu,et al.  Soil amoebae rapidly change bacterial community composition in the rhizosphere of Arabidopsis thaliana , 2009, The ISME Journal.

[46]  C. Putaporntip,et al.  Identification of a Novel T17 Genotype of Acanthamoeba from Environmental Isolates and T10 Genotype Causing Keratitis in Thailand , 2010, Journal of Clinical Microbiology.

[47]  N. Khan,et al.  Possible roles of phospholipase A(2) in the biological activities of Acanthamoeba castellanii (T4 Genotype). , 2011, Protist.

[48]  A. J. Martínez,et al.  Free‐living, Amphizoic and Opportunistic Amebas , 1997, Brain pathology.

[49]  T. Tsuruhara,et al.  Structure and expression of a cyst specific protein of Acanthamoeba castellanii. , 1998, Biochimica et biophysica acta.

[50]  T. Jackson.  Entamoeba histolytica and Entamoeba dispar are distinct species; clinical, epidemiological and serological evidence. , 1998, International journal for parasitology.

[51]  P. Taylor.  Isolation and experimental infection of free-living amebae in freshwater fishes. , 1977, The Journal of parasitology.

[52]  E. González-Rey,et al.  Impact of protozoan cell death on parasite-host interactions and pathogenesis , 2010, Parasites & Vectors.

[53]  A. López-Arencibia,et al.  Therapeutic Potential of a Combination of Two Gene-Specific Small Interfering RNAs against Clinical Strains of Acanthamoeba , 2010, Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy.

[54]  B. Bowers,et al.  CYTOCHEMICAL IDENTIFICATION OF PHOSPHATASE ACTIVITY IN THE CONTRACTILE VACUOLE OF ACANTHAMOEBA CASTELLANII , 1973, The Journal of cell biology.

[55]  E. Korn,et al.  7-Dehydrostigmasterol and ergosterol: the major sterols of an amoeba. , 1968, Journal of lipid research.

[56]  Bryan S. Griffiths,et al.  Impact of Protozoan Grazing on Bacterial Community Structure in Soil Microcosms , 2002, Applied and Environmental Microbiology.

[57]  R. Wotton,et al.  Locomotion and feeding of Acanthamoeba at the water-air interface of ponds. , 2001, FEMS microbiology letters.

[58]  C. Clark.  Entamoeba dispar, an organism reborn , 1998 .

[59]  D. Moreira,et al.  Giant viruses, giant chimeras: The multiple evolutionary histories of Mimivirus genes , 2008, BMC Evolutionary Biology.

[60]  E. Bateman,et al.  Cloning and Characterization of a Novel Mannose-binding Protein of Acanthamoeba* , 2004, Journal of Biological Chemistry.

[61]  William H. Majoros,et al.  Gene discovery in the Acanthamoeba castellanii genome. , 2005, Protist.

[62]  M. Ren,et al.  Toll‐like receptor 4 signalling pathway activation in a rat model of Acanthamoeba Keratitis , 2011, Parasite immunology.

[63]  J. Pérez-Santonja,et al.  Persistently culture positive acanthamoeba keratitis: in vivo resistance and in vitro sensitivity. , 2003, Ophthalmology.

[64]  N. Fasel,et al.  Apoptotic markers in protozoan parasites , 2010, Parasites & Vectors.

[65]  D. Dessì,et al.  In vitro acanthamoebicidal activity of a killer monoclonal antibody and a synthetic peptide. , 2006, The Journal of antimicrobial chemotherapy.

[66]  D. Corsaro,et al.  Phylogenetic evidence for a new genotype of Acanthamoeba (Amoebozoa, Acanthamoebida) , 2010, Parasitology Research.

[67]  R. Siddiqui,et al.  Acanthamoeba affects the integrity of human brain microvascular endothelial cells and degrades the tight junction proteins. , 2009, International journal for parasitology.

[68]  D. Freitas,et al.  Twenty Years of Acanthamoeba Keratitis , 2009, Cornea.

[69]  C. Joslin,et al.  Recent outbreaks of atypical contact lens-related keratitis: what have we learned? , 2010, American journal of ophthalmology.

[70]  R. J. Neff,et al.  The biochemistry of amoebic encystment. , 1969, Symposia of the Society for Experimental Biology.

[71]  A. Castellani.  An amoeba found in cultures of a yeast Preliminary note-Third note-An amoeba growing in cultures of a yeast Second note-Fourth note , 1930 .

[72]  M. Caliari,et al.  Histopathological and immunohistochemical study of the hepatic lesions experimentally induced by Entamoeba dispar , 2010, European journal of histochemistry : EJH.

[73]  F. Schuster,et al.  Balamuthia Mandrillaris, N. G., N. Sp., Agent of Amebic Meningoencephalitis In Humans and Other Animals , 1993, The Journal of eukaryotic microbiology.

[74]  Savitri Sharma,et al.  Role of confocal microscopy in the diagnosis of fungal and acanthamoeba keratitis. , 2011, Ophthalmology.

[75]  E. A. Jones,et al.  Isolation of cellulose from the cyst wall of a soil amoeba. , 1962, Biochimica et biophysica acta.

[76]  C. Villemez,et al.  Preparation of an immunotoxin for Acanthamoeba castellanii. , 1984, Biochemical and biophysical research communications.

[77]  E. Hadaś,et al.  Biosynthesis of prostaglandins in pathogenic and nonpathogenic strains of Acanthamoeba spp. , 1997, Parasitology Research.

[78]  P. Fuerst,et al.  The Evolutionary History of the Genus Acanthamoeba and the Identification of Eight New 18S rRNA Gene Sequence Types , 1998, The Journal of eukaryotic microbiology.

[79]  T. Pollard,et al.  Ultrastructural characterization of F-actin isolated from Acanthamoeba castellanii and identification of cytoplasmic filaments as F-actin by reaction with rabbit heavy meromyosin. , 1970, Journal of molecular biology.

[80]  E. Korn,et al.  PLASMA AND PHAGOSOME MEMBRANES OF ACANTHAMOEBA CASTELLANII , 1971, The Journal of cell biology.

[81]  B. Na,et al.  Degradation of immunoglobulins, protease inhibitors and interleukin-1 by a secretory proteinase of Acanthamoeba castellanii. , 2002, The Korean journal of parasitology.

[82]  H Alizadeh,et al.  The pathogenesis of Acanthamoeba keratitis. , 1999, Microbes and infection.

[83]  K. H. Kim,et al.  [Natural killer cell activity in mice infected with free-living amoeba with reference to their pathogenicity]. , 1993, The Korean journal of parasitology.

[84]  L. Laroche,et al.  New tool for the simultaneous detection of 10 different genotypes of Acanthamoeba available from the American Type Culture Collection , 2009, British Journal of Ophthalmology.

[85]  R. Siddiqui,et al.  Effect of free versus liposomal-complexed pentamidine isethionate on biological characteristics of Acanthamoeba castellanii in vitro. , 2009, Journal of medical microbiology.

[86]  N. Khan,et al.  Role of human tear fluid in Acanthamoeba interactions with the human corneal epithelial cells. , 2008, International journal of medical microbiology : IJMM.

[87]  N. Khan,et al.  Ecto-ATPases of clinical and non-clinical isolates of Acanthamoeba. , 2004, Microbial pathogenesis.

[88]  P. Cappuccinelli,et al.  ADP and Other Metabolites Released from Acanthamoeba castellanii Lead to Human Monocytic Cell Death through Apoptosis and Stimulate the Secretion of Proinflammatory Cytokines , 2002, Infection and Immunity.

[89]  G. Booton,et al.  Infections Caused by Pathogenic Free-Living Amebas (Balamuthia Mandrillaris and Acanthamoeba sp.) in Horses , 2007, Journal of veterinary diagnostic investigation : official publication of the American Association of Veterinary Laboratory Diagnosticians, Inc.

[90]  D. Patel,et al.  Resurgence of Acanthamoeba keratitis in Auckland, New Zealand: a 7‐year review of presentation and outcomes , 2010, Clinical & experimental ophthalmology.

[91]  F. Schuster,et al.  Pathogenic and opportunistic free-living amoebae: Acanthamoeba spp., Balamuthia mandrillaris, Naegleria fowleri, and Sappinia diploidea. , 2007, FEMS immunology and medical microbiology.