Vulnerability and resilience: a study of high-risk adolescents.

Factors that allow children to maintain socially competent behaviors despite stress were examined among 144 inner-city ninth-grade students with a mean age of 15.3 years. Stress was operationalized by scores on a negative life events scale, and definitions of social competence were based on peer ratings, teacher ratings, and school grades. Moderator variables examined included intelligence, internal locus of control, social skills, ego development, and positive life events. Following theoretical models by Garmezy and Rutter, distinctions were made between compensatory factors (which are directly related to competence) and protective/vulnerability factors (which interact with stress in influencing competence). Ego development was found to be compensatory against stress. Internality and social skills proved to be protective factors, while intelligence and positive events were involved in vulnerability processes. This study also revealed that children labeled as resilient were significantly more depressed and anxious than were competent children from low stress backgrounds.

[1]  Michael J. Kovacs.  Children’s Depression Inventory , 2014 .

[2]  A. McFarlane.  Acute reactions to stress , 1991 .

[3]  F. Masterpasqua.  A competence paradigm for psychological practice. , 1989 .

[4]  B. Leadbeater,et al.  Assessment of Interpersonal Negotiation Strategies in Youth Engaged in Problem Behaviors , 1989 .

[5]  E. Werner,et al.  Vulnerable but Invincible: A Longitudinal Study of Resilient Children and Youth , 1989 .

[6]  A. Tellegen,et al.  Competence and stress in school children: the moderating effects of individual and family qualities. , 1988, Journal of child psychology and psychiatry, and allied disciplines.

[7]  E. Zigler,et al.  Motivational factors, school atmosphere, and SES: Determinants of children's probability task performance , 1988 .

[8]  G. Kieckhefer.  Life events as stressors in childhood and adolescence , 1988 .

[9]  S. Bernier.  A DEVELOPMENTAL APPROACH TO ADULT PSYCHOPATHOLOGY , 1988 .

[10]  M. Rutter.  Psychosocial resilience and protective mechanisms. , 1987, The American journal of orthopsychiatry.

[11]  David O’Grady,et al.  Resilience in children at high risk for psychological disorder. , 1987, Journal of pediatric psychology.

[12]  S. Greenspan,et al.  Intelligence quotient scores of 4-year-old children: social-environmental risk factors. , 1987, Pediatrics.

[13]  Ann S. Masten,et al.  Stress, competence, and resilience: Common frontiers for therapist and psychopathologist , 1986 .

[14]  R. Riggio.  Assessment of Basic Social Skills , 1986 .

[15]  D. Quinlan,et al.  Ego development and intelligence in a psychiatric population: Wechsler subtest scores. , 1985, Journal of personality assessment.

[16]  Ann S. Masten,et al.  A revised class play method of peer assessment. , 1985 .

[17]  E. Cowen,et al.  Person-centered approaches to primary prevention in mental health: Situation-focused and competence-enhancement , 1985, American journal of community psychology.

[18]  J. Loevinger,et al.  Revision of the sentence completion test for ego development. , 1985, Journal of personality and social psychology.

[19]  A. Spirito,et al.  The children's depression inventory: a systematic evaluation of psychometric properties. , 1984, Journal of consulting and clinical psychology.

[20]  M. Rutter,et al.  Long-term follow-up of women institutionalized in childhood: Factors promoting good functioning in adult life. , 1984 .

[21]  M. Rutter,et al.  Institutional rearing, parenting difficulties and marital support , 1984, Psychological Medicine.

[22]  S. Hauser,et al.  Ego development and psychopathology: a study of hospitalized adolescents. , 1984, Child development.

[23]  S. Hauser,et al.  Familial contexts of adolescent ego development. , 1984, Child development.

[24]  D. Zuroff,et al.  Construct validation of the dependency and self-criticism scales of the depressive experiences questionnaire , 1983 .

[25]  Everett Waters,et al.  Social Competence as a Developmental Construct , 1983 .

[26]  Kaoru Yamamoto,et al.  Stressful Experiences of Children: Professional Judgments , 1982, Psychological reports.

[27]  James H. Johnson,et al.  Note on Reliability of the Life Events Checklist , 1982 .

[28]  D. Zuroff,et al.  Dependency and self-criticism: psychological dimensions of depression. , 1982, Journal of consulting and clinical psychology.

[29]  J. Reich,et al.  Life events and personal causation: some relationships with satisfaction and distress. , 1981, Journal of personality and social psychology.

[30]  Jacob Cohen,et al.  Applied multiple regression/correlation analysis for the behavioral sciences , 1979 .

[31]  Edward G. Carmines,et al.  Reliability and Validity Assessment , 1979 .

[32]  J. Loevinger.  Construct Validity of the Sentence Completion Test of Ego Development , 1979 .

[33]  M. Stewart.  The Delinquent Way of Life , 1979 .

[34]  C. Edelbrock,et al.  The classification of child psychopathology: a review and analysis of empirical efforts. , 1978, Psychological bulletin.

[35]  Edward Zigler,et al.  IQ, Social Competence, and Evaluation of Early Childhood Intervention Programs. , 1978 .

[36]  J. Gersten,et al.  An evaluation of the etiologic role of stressful life-change events in psychological disorders. , 1977, Journal of health and social behavior.

[37]  D. Quinlan,et al.  Ego development and female delinquency: a cognitive-developmental approach. , 1976, Journal of abnormal psychology.

[38]  S. Hauser.  Loevinger's model and measure of ego development: A critical review. , 1976 .

[39]  C. Redmore,et al.  Reliability of a sentence completion measure of ego development. , 1975, Journal of personality assessment.

[40]  S. Nowicki,et al.  A locus of control scale for children. , 1973 .

[41]  D. A. Pond,et al.  Social Class and Mental Illness , 1958, Mental Health.

[42]  R. G. Hunt,et al.  Social Class and Mental Illness , 1959 .

[43]  W. R. Garner,et al.  Operationism and the concept of perception. , 1956, Psychological review.

[44]  A. Tellegen,et al.  Risk and protective factors in the development of psychopathology: Competence under stress: risk and protective factors , 1990 .

[45]  D. Cicchetti,et al.  Risk and protective factors in the development of psychopathology: Contents , 1990 .

[46]  T. Heeren,et al.  Suicidal behavior in "normal" adolescents: risk and protective factors. , 1989, The American journal of orthopsychiatry.

[47]  E. Werner,et al.  High-risk children in young adulthood: a longitudinal study from birth to 32 years. , 1989, The American journal of orthopsychiatry.

[48]  E. J. Anthony,et al.  Risk, vulnerability, and resilience: An overview. , 1987 .

[49]  J. Felsman,et al.  Resilient children as adults: A 40-year study. , 1987 .

[50]  James J. Snyder,et al.  Family interaction and delinquent behavior. , 1987 .

[51]  Herbert C. Quay,et al.  Handbook of juvenile delinquency. , 1987 .

[52]  E. Cowen,et al.  The Teacher–Child Rating Scale: A brief objective measure of elementary children's school problem behaviors and competencies. , 1986 .

[53]  M. Kovacs.  The Children's Depression, Inventory (CDI). , 1985, Psychopharmacology bulletin.

[54]  N. Garmezy.  Stress-resistant children: The search for protective factors , 1985 .

[55]  J. Stevenson.  Recent research in developmental psychopathology , 1985 .

[56]  E. Zigler,et al.  Commonalities between the intellectual extremes: Giftedness and mental retardation. , 1985 .

[57]  A. Tellegen,et al.  The study of stress and competence in children: a building block for developmental psychopathology. , 1984, Child development.

[58]  A. Tellegen,et al.  STUDIES OF STRESS-RESISTANT CHILDREN: METHODS, VARIABLES, AND PRELIMINARY FINDINGS , 1984 .

[59]  G. Spivack,et al.  The Cognition of Social Adjustment , 1982 .

[60]  Richard S. Lazarus,et al.  EMOTIONS: A COGNITIVE–PHENOMENOLOGICAL ANALYSIS , 1980 .

[61]  Benjamin B. Lahey,et al.  Advances in Clinical Child Psychology , 1980, Advances in Clinical Child Psychology.

[62]  H. McGurk.  Ecological factors in human development , 1977 .

[63]  David P. Farrington,et al.  The Delinquent Way Of Life , 1977 .

[64]  J. Loevinger,et al.  Ego development : [conceptions and theories] , 1976 .

[65]  J. Raven,et al.  Manual for Raven's progressive matrices and vocabulary scales , 1962 .

[66]  Fredrick C. Redlich,et al.  Social class and mental illness: Community study. , 1958 .

[67]  F. S. Dubois.  Understanding adolescence. , 1956, Connecticut state medical journal.