The expanding telephone number Part 1: Keying briefly presented multiple-digit numbers

The aim of this study was to examine immediate memory performance for multiple digit numbers in a practical read-and-key or listen-and-key task, and to evaluate the most effective ways of presenting multiple digit numbers. Variables measured were list length (4-10 digits), presentation mode (visual simultaneously, auditory), grouping format (1+1, 2+2, 3+3) and presentation time (0.5 sec/digit, 1.0 sec/digit). A total of 144 subjects participated. Not surprisingly, list length is a vital factor in recall. A longer presentation time was advantageous for both modes, while an effect of mode was observed only for the ungrouped numbers, where the auditory condition was inferior. The serial position curves showed primacy and recency with auditory presentation, and primacy and a superior performance on the middle part of the list using visual presentation. Local serial position effects revealed that ungrouped numbers presented visually are subjectively grouped in twos. The results have broad implications in the human factors area.

[1]  J V Moulden,et al.  Short-Term Memory for Numbers , 1990, Human factors.

[2]  Roderick Wong,et al.  Presentation modes and immediate recall in children , 1966 .

[3]  J Ryan,et al.  Grouping and Short-Term Memory: Different Means and Patterns of Grouping , 1969, The Quarterly journal of experimental psychology.

[4]  L. Bäckman,et al.  Adult age differences in cross-modal recoding and mental tempo, and older adults' utilization of compensatory task conditions. , 1986, Experimental aging research.

[5]  M. Posner,et al.  RATE OF PRESENTATION AND ORDER OF RECALL IN IMMEDIATE MEMORY. , 1964, British journal of psychology.

[6]  D. Norman,et al.  Acquisition and retention in short-term memory. , 1966, Journal of experimental psychology.

[7]  N. Burgess,et al.  Temporal Grouping Effects in Immediate Recall: A Working Memory Analysis , 1996 .

[8]  E. T. Klemmer.  Numerical error checking. , 1959 .

[9]  Clive Frankish,et al.  Perceptual organization and precategorical acoustic storage. , 1989, Journal of experimental psychology. Learning, memory, and cognition.

[10]  David Gerver,et al.  Effects of Grammaticalness, Presentation Rate, and Message Length on Auditory Short-Term Memory , 1969 .

[11]  R. Frick.  Explanations of grouping in immediate ordered recall , 1989, Memory & cognition.

[12]  Clive Frankish,et al.  Modality-specific grouping effects in short-term memory , 1985 .

[13]  Joanna Ryan.  Temporal Grouping, Rehearsal and Short-Term Memory , 1969, The Quarterly journal of experimental psychology.

[14]  A. Baddeley,et al.  The recency effect: Implicit learning with explicit retrieval? , 1993, Memory & cognition.

[15]  Rhea L. Dornbusw.  Input variables in bisensory memory , 1968 .

[16]  J M Gardiner,et al.  On recency and echoic memory. , 1983, Philosophical transactions of the Royal Society of London. Series B, Biological sciences.

[17]  D. J. Murray.  Vocalization-at-presentation and Immediate Recall, with Varying Recall Methods , 1966 .

[18]  A. E. Woodward.  Continuity between serial memory and serial learning. , 1970 .

[19]  M. T. Turvey,et al.  Modality differences in short-term serial memory as a function of presentation rate , 1969 .

[20]  A. Baddeley.  Is Working Memory Working? The Fifteenth Bartlett Lecture , 1992 .

[21]  A. Glenberg,et al.  A temporal distinctiveness theory of recency and modality effects. , 1986, Journal of experimental psychology. Learning, memory, and cognition.

[22]  R. Conrad,et al.  Accuracy of recall using keyset and telephone dial, and the effect of a prefix digit. , 1958 .

[23]  R. Dornbush,et al.  Stimulus information and stimulus interference in bisensory short-term memory , 1969 .

[24]  Carlo Umiltà,et al.  Is there a modality effect? Evidence for visual recency and suffix effects , 1990, Memory & cognition.

[25]  A. J. Hull,et al.  Input modality and the serial position curve in short-term memory , 1968 .

[26]  R. Conrad,et al.  The decay theory of immediate memory and paced recall. , 1958, Canadian journal of psychology.

[27]  D. Norman.  The psychology of everyday things", Basic Books Inc , 1988 .

[28]  Kenneth R. Laughery,et al.  Short-Term Memory: Mode of Presentation for Alphanumeric Information1 , 1969 .

[29]  P A Allen,et al.  Age differences in primary organization or processing variability? Part I: An examination of age and primary organization. , 1988, Experimental aging research.

[30]  Michael C. Corballis,et al.  Rehearsal and decay in immediate recall of visually and aurally presented items. , 1966 .

[31]  H A Simon,et al.  How Big Is a Chunk? , 1974, Science.

[32]  D. Norman.  The psychology of everyday things , 1990 .

[33]  G. A. Miller.  THE PSYCHOLOGICAL REVIEW THE MAGICAL NUMBER SEVEN, PLUS OR MINUS TWO: SOME LIMITS ON OUR CAPACITY FOR PROCESSING INFORMATION 1 , 1956 .

[34]  Robert G. Crowder,et al.  Visual presentation of stimuli in immediate memory , 1966 .

[35]  Marilyn K. Rigby,et al.  Influence of digit grouping on memory for telephone numbers. , 1963 .

[36]  J F MACKWORTH,et al.  AUDITORY SHORT-TERM MEMORY. , 1964, Canadian journal of psychology.

[37]  R. Frick,et al.  Using both an auditory and a visual short-term store to increase digit span , 1984, Memory & cognition.

[38]  I. Pollack,et al.  Running memory span. , 1959, Journal of experimental psychology.

[39]  D. J. Murray,et al.  Vocalization-at-presentation, Auditory Presentation and Immediate Recall , 1965, Nature.

[40]  D. C. Lecompte,et al.  In search of a strong visual recency effect , 1992, Memory & cognition.

[41]  R. Conrad.  EXPERIMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY IN THE FIELD OF TELECOMMUNICATIONS , 1960 .

[42]  R. Frick,et al.  Testing visual short-term memory: Simultaneous versus sequential presentations , 1985, Memory & cognition.

[43]  Kenneth R. Laughery,et al.  Short-term memory: Effects of acoustic similarity, presentation rate and presentation mode , 1966 .

[44]  Knut Nordby,et al.  Micro‐position effects in visual short term memory , 1997 .

[45]  Bennet B. Murdock,et al.  Where or when: Modality effects as a function of temporal and spatial distribution of information , 1969 .

[46]  J F MACKWORTH,et al.  The effect of display time upon the recall of digits. , 1962, Canadian journal of psychology.