SPERM THRUSTS AND THE PROBLEM OF PENETRATION

An equation of Lighthill's is used to calculate sperm thrusts. They have values in the range 5–350 pN, depending on species. The limitations of this approach are discussed and comparison is made with the measured thrust for human sperm. The effect of sperm thrusts of this magnitude on covalent bonds and reversible bonds is discussed. Sperm cannot break covalent bonds, but can reduce the lifetime of reversible bonds.

[1]  P. Wassarman,et al.  Enzymatic dissection of the functions of the mouse egg's receptor for sperm. , 1984, Developmental biology.

[2]  L. Fraser,et al.  The relationship between zona digestion and cortical granule disappearance in rabbit eggs inseminated in vitro. , 1975, Biology of Reproduction.

[3]  Geoffrey Ingram Taylor,et al.  The action of waving cylindrical tails in propelling microscopic organisms , 1952, Proceedings of the Royal Society of London. Series A. Mathematical and Physical Sciences.

[4]  R. Schnaar,et al.  Hepatocyte adhesion to immobilized carbohydrates. I. Sugar recognition is followed by energy-dependent strengthening. , 1982, The Journal of biological chemistry.

[5]  J. Bedford Sperm/egg interaction: The specificity of human spermatozoa , 1977, The Anatomical record.

[6]  P. Wassarman,et al.  Mouse blastocysts hatch in vitro by using a trypsin-like proteinase associated with cells of mural trophectoderm. , 1986, Developmental biology.

[7]  D. Katz,et al.  In vitro studies of the golden hamster sperm acrosome reaction: completion on the zona pellucida and induction by homologous soluble zonae pellucidae. , 1986, Developmental biology.

[8]  B. T. Storey,et al.  Mouse gamete interactions during fertilization in vitro. Chlortetracycline as a fluorescent probe for the mouse sperm acrosome reaction , 1979, The Journal of cell biology.

[9]  F. Hallett,et al.  Quasi-elastic light-scattering spectra of swimming spermatozoa. Rotational and translational effects. , 1979, Biophysical journal.

[10]  D. Mortimer,et al.  Relationship between human sperm motility characteristics and sperm penetration into human cervical mucus in vitro. , 1986, Journal of reproduction and fertility.

[11]  R. Brinster A METHOD FOR IN VITRO CULTIVATION OF MOUSE OVA FROM TWO-CELL TO BLASTOCYST. , 1963, Experimental cell research.

[12]  R. Yanagimachi,et al.  Wheat Germ Agglutinin blocks Mammalian Fertilization , 1973, Nature.

[13]  A. Menino,et al.  Characterization of Porcine Oocyte Zonae Pellucidae by Polyacrylamide Gel Electrophoresis 1 , 1979, Proceedings of the Society for Experimental Biology and Medicine. Society for Experimental Biology and Medicine.

[14]  R. Gwatkin,et al.  Large scale isolation of bovine and pig zonae pellucidae: Chemical, immunological, and receptor properties , 1980 .

[15]  E. Purcell The effect of fluid motions on the absorption of molecules by suspended particles , 1978, Journal of Fluid Mechanics.

[16]  T. Ueda,et al.  Unfolding rates of globular proteins determined by kinetics of proteolysis. , 1986, Journal of molecular biology.

[17]  D. Green The activation of proteolysis in the acrosome reaction of guinea-pig sperm. , 1978, Journal of cell science.

[18]  U. Rutishauser,et al.  Receptor mobility and the binding of cells to lectin-coated fibers , 1975, The Journal of cell biology.

[19]  J. Bedford Why mammalian gametes don't mix , 1981, Nature.

[20]  C. Brown,et al.  Changes in composition of the porcine zona pellucida during development of the oocyte to the 2- to 4-cell embryo. , 1986, Journal of embryology and experimental morphology.

[21]  A. D. Fleming,et al.  Only acrosome-reacted spermatozoa can bind to and penetrate zona pellucida: a study using the guinea pig. , 1981, The Journal of experimental zoology.

[22]  A. Minton Thermodynamic nonideality and the dependence of partition coefficient upon solute concentration in exclusion chromatography. Application to self-associating and non-self-associating solutes. Application to hemoglobin. , 1980, Biophysical chemistry.

[23]  C. Pace,et al.  Kinetics of tryptic hydrolysis of the arginine-valine bond in folded and unfolded ribonuclease T1. , 1984, The Biochemical journal.

[24]  S. Mukerji,et al.  Biochemical studies of proacrosin and acrosin from hamster cauda epididymal spermatozoa. , 1976, Biology of reproduction.

[25]  B. Gulyas,et al.  Mammalian sperm-egg recognition and binding in vitro. I. Specificity of sperm interactions with live and fixed eggs in homologous and heterologous inseminations of hamster, mouse, and guinea pig oocytes. , 1980, Biology of reproduction.

[26]  D. Katz,et al.  Movement characteristics and power output of guinea-pig and hamster spermatozoa in relation to activation. , 1978, Journal of reproduction and fertility.

[27]  Z. Dickmann THE ZONA PELLUCIDA OF THE RABBIT EGG. , 1963, Fertility and sterility.

[28]  C. Brown The morphological and molecular susceptibility of sheep and mouse zona pellucida to acrosin. , 1986, Journal of reproduction and fertility.

[29]  A. Nose,et al.  A novel cadherin cell adhesion molecule: its expression patterns associated with implantation and organogenesis of mouse embryos , 1986, The Journal of cell biology.

[30]  S. Bergström Shedding of the zona pellucida of the mouse blastocyst in normal pregnancy. , 1972, Journal of Reproduction and Fertility.

[31]  K. Conrad,et al.  Studies on the nature of the block to polyspermy in rabbit ova. , 1971, Journal of reproduction and fertility.

[32]  M. Smoluchowski Versuch einer mathematischen Theorie der Koagulationskinetik kolloider Lösungen , 1918 .

[33]  R. Scaramuzzi,et al.  Oestradiol levels in sheep plasma during the oestrous cycle. , 1978, Journal of reproduction and fertility.

[34]  C. E. Adams The Mammalian Egg , 1962, Nature.

[35]  S. Edwards The theory of macromolecular networks. , 1986, Biorheology.

[36]  R. Rikmenspoel The tail movement of bull spermatozoa. Observations and model calculations. , 1965, Biophysical journal.

[37]  L. Haimo,et al.  Motile cells lacking hyaluronidase can penetrate the hamster oocyte cumulus complex. , 1985, Developmental biology.

[38]  G. I. Bell Models for the specific adhesion of cells to cells. , 1978, Science.

[39]  I. Gibbons MECHANISMS OF FLAGELLAR MOTILITY , 1975 .

[40]  D. Wolf,et al.  Sperm binding characteristics of the murine zona pellucida. , 1975, Biology of reproduction.

[41]  D. Green Mammalian sperm cannot penetrate the zona pellucida solely by force. , 1987, Experimental cell research.

[42]  D. Wolf,et al.  Solubility properties of the murine zona pellucida. , 1974, Biology of reproduction.

[43]  C. R. Austin,et al.  Early Reactions of the Rodent Egg to Spermatozoon Penetration , 1956 .

[44]  C. Liu,et al.  Identification of the three major proteins of porcine and rabbit zonae pellucidae by high resolution two-dimensional gel electrophoresis: comparison with serum, follicular, fluid, and ovarian cell proteins. , 1981, Biology of reproduction.

[45]  M. Kujawa,et al.  Fine structure of the zona pellucida of unfertilized egg cells and embryos. , 1975, The Journal of experimental zoology.

[46]  L. Russell,et al.  Sperm-egg interaction: evidence for boar sperm plasma membrane receptors for porcine zona pellucida. , 1980, Science.

[47]  W. Douglas,et al.  Stimulus‐secretion coupling: the concept and clues from chromaffin and other cells , 1968, British journal of pharmacology.

[48]  B. Mintz Experimental Study of the Developing Mammalian Egg: Removal of the Zona Pellucida , 1962, Science.

[49]  C. R. Austin FATE OF SPERMATOZOA IN THE FEMALE GENITAL TRACT , 1960 .

[50]  R. Rikmenspoel,et al.  Energy Conversion in Bull Sperm Flagella , 1969, The Journal of general physiology.

[51]  L. Zaneveld,et al.  Biochemical Changes in the Zona Pellucida of Rabbit Ova Induced by Fertilization and Sperm Enzymes , 1971, Proceedings of the Society for Experimental Biology and Medicine. Society for Experimental Biology and Medicine.

[52]  J. Kremer,et al.  The sperm-cervical mucus contact test: a preliminary report. , 1976, Fertility and sterility.

[53]  W. Whitten The effect of progesterone on the development of mouse eggs in vitro. , 1957, The Journal of endocrinology.

[54]  R. Yanagimachi,et al.  Ultrastructural changes in the hamster sperm head during fertilization. , 1970, Journal of ultrastructure research.

[55]  E. Yurewicz,et al.  Structural characterization of the Mr = 55,000 antigen (ZP3) of porcine oocyte zona pellucida. Purification and characterization of alpha- and beta-glycoproteins following digestion of lactosaminoglycan with endo-beta-galactosidase. , 1987, The Journal of biological chemistry.

[56]  J. Dean,et al.  Oocyte-specific gene expression: molecular characterization of a cDNA coding for ZP-3, the sperm receptor of the mouse zona pellucida. , 1986, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America.

[57]  P. Dziuk,et al.  SPERM PENETRATION OF THE ZONA PELLUCIDA OF THE PIG EGG. , 1964, The Journal of experimental biology.

[58]  B. T. Storey,et al.  An ultrastructural study of epididymal mouse spermatozoa binding to zonae pellucidae in vitro: sequential relationship to the acrosome reaction. , 1979, The Journal of experimental zoology.

[59]  C. Brown Effects of ram sperm acrosin on the investments of sheep, pig, mouse and gerbil eggs. , 1982, Journal of reproduction and fertility.

[60]  B. Gulyas,et al.  Ovoperoxidase activity in ionophore treated mouse eggs. II. Evidence for the enzyme's role in hardening the zona pellucida , 1980 .

[61]  R. Cole,et al.  Cinemicrographic observations on the trophoblast and zona pellucida of the mouse blastocyst. , 1967, Journal of embryology and experimental morphology.

[62]  S. N. Zhurkov Kinetic concept of the strength of solids , 1965, International journal of fracture mechanics.

[63]  J. Gray,et al.  The Propulsion of Sea-Urchin Spermatozoa , 1955 .

[64]  J. Fléchon,et al.  Acrosin does not appear to be bound to the inner acrosomal membrane of bull spermatozoa. , 1979, The Journal of experimental zoology.

[65]  W. H. Lewis,et al.  CINEMATOGRAPHS OF LIVING DEVELOPING RABBIT-EGGS. , 1929, Science.

[66]  P Bongrand,et al.  Cell adhesion. Competition between nonspecific repulsion and specific bonding. , 1984, Biophysical journal.

[67]  D. Richardson,et al.  Relationship between the movement characteristics of human spermatozoa and their ability to penetrate cervical mucus and zona-free hamster oocytes. , 1985, Journal of reproduction and fertility.

[68]  R. Gwatkin,et al.  Early contact interactions between mammalian gametes in vitro: evidence that the vitellus influences adherence between sperm and zona pellucida. , 1972, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America.

[69]  R. Gwatkin,et al.  Alteration of Sites on the Mammalian Sperm Surface following Capacitation , 1971, Nature.

[70]  G. Edelman,et al.  Ontogenetic expression of cell adhesion molecules: L-CAM is found in epithelia derived from the three primary germ layers. , 1984, Developmental biology.

[71]  J. Fléchon,et al.  Ultrastructural localization of proacrosin and acrosin in ram spermatozoa , 1984 .

[72]  S. Morris,et al.  The distribution of calcium, magnesium, copper and iron in the bovine adrenal medulla , 1977, Neuroscience.

[73]  R. Blandau Observations on implantation of the guinea pig ovum , 1949, The Anatomical record.

[74]  C. Brokaw Non-sinusoidal bending waves of sperm flagella. , 1965, The Journal of experimental biology.

[75]  M. O'Rand,et al.  Localization of zona pellucida binding sites on rabbit spermatozoa and induction of the acrosome reaction by solubilized zonae. , 1987, Developmental biology.

[76]  C. Barros,et al.  Polyspermy-preventing mechanisms in the golden hamster egg. , 1972, The Journal of experimental zoology.

[77]  D. Garrod,et al.  CELL BEHAVIOUR AND MOLECULAR MECHANISMS OF CELL‐CELL ADHESION , 1981, Biological reviews of the Cambridge Philosophical Society.

[78]  J. Gearhart,et al.  Subnormal zona pellucida change in parthenogenetic mouse embryos. , 1973, Developmental biology.

[79]  K. Yagishita,et al.  A study of the native-denatured (N⇌D) transition in lysozyme I. Detection of the transition by product analyses of protease digests , 1974 .

[80]  P. Wassarman,et al.  Mouse egg extracellular coat is a matrix of interconnected filaments possessing a structural repeat. , 1985, Journal of molecular biology.

[81]  M. C. Chang,et al.  Effects of proteolytic enzymes on the zona pellucida of fertilized and unfertilized mammalian eggs. , 1956, Experimental cell research.

[82]  C. Glabe,et al.  Species-specific sperm adhesion in sea urchins. A quantitative investigation of bindin- mediated egg agglutination , 1979, The Journal of cell biology.

[83]  Awh Braden,et al.  Properties of the Membranes of Rat and Rabbit Eggs , 1952 .

[84]  M. Schwartz,et al.  The adsorption of coliphage lambda to its host: effect of variations in the surface density of receptor and in phage-receptor affinity. , 1976, Journal of molecular biology.

[85]  C. Mathews Isolation and Preliminary Characterization , 2022 .

[86]  B. Dunbar,et al.  Proteolysis of specific porcine zona pellucida glycoproteins by boar acrosin. , 1985, Biology of reproduction.

[87]  G. I. Bell,et al.  Concanavalin-A-mediated thymocyte agglutination: a model for a quantitative study of cell adhesion. , 1982, Journal of cell science.

[88]  R. Cone,et al.  Rat sperm are mechanically immobilized in the caudal epididymis by "immobilin," a high molecular weight glycoprotein. , 1983, Biology of reproduction.

[89]  P. Wassarman,et al.  Mammalian sperm-egg interaction: Identification of a glycoprotein in mouse egg zonae pellucidae possessing receptor activity for sperm , 1980, Cell.

[90]  H. A. David,et al.  The reaction of zona pellucida to sperm penetration. , 1954, Australian journal of biological sciences.

[91]  G. Edelman Cell adhesion molecules. , 1983, Science.

[92]  K. Ahuja,et al.  Investigation of sperm receptors in the hamster zona pellucida by using univalent (Fab) antibodies to hamster ovary. , 1981, Journal of reproduction and fertility.

[93]  M. Smoluchowski,et al.  Drei Vorträge über Diffusion, Brownsche Molekularbewegung und Koagulation von Kolloidteilchen , 1927 .

[94]  H. Ishikawa,et al.  THE POLYMERIZATION OF ACTIN: ITS ROLE IN THE GENERATION OF THE ACROSOMAL PROCESS OF CERTAIN ECHINODERM SPERM , 1973, Journal of Cell Biology.

[95]  B. Dunbar,et al.  Monoclonal antibodies to rabbit and pig zonae pellucidae distinguish species-specific and shared antigenic determinants. , 1984, Biology of reproduction.

[96]  G. Matthyssens,et al.  Study of the thermal-denaturation mechanism of hen egg-white lysozyme through proteolytic degradation. , 1972, European journal of biochemistry.

[97]  J. Gray,et al.  The Movement of Sea-Urchin Spermatozoa , 1955 .

[98]  R. Cardullo,et al.  Mechanical immobilization of rat sperm does not change their oxygen consumption rate. , 1986, Biology of reproduction.

[99]  E. Evans Detailed mechanics of membrane-membrane adhesion and separation. I. Continuum of molecular cross-bridges. , 1985, Biophysical journal.

[100]  D. Torney,et al.  On the adhesion of vesicles by cell adhesion molecules. , 1985, Biophysical journal.

[101]  H. Lindgren,et al.  The macromolecular structure of human cervical-mucus glycoproteins. Studies on fragments obtained after reduction of disulphide bridges and after subsequent trypsin digestion. , 1983, The Biochemical journal.

[102]  H. Krzanowska Rapidity of removal in vitro of the cumulus oophorus and the zona pellucida in different strains of mice. , 1972, Journal of reproduction and fertility.

[103]  J. Bedford,et al.  Normal penetration of rabbit spermatozoa through a trypsin- and acrosin-resistant zona pellucida. , 1978, Journal of reproduction and fertility.

[104]  P. Talbot,et al.  Architecture of the hamster oocyte-cumulus complex , 1984 .

[105]  R. Harrison PROCEEDINGS OF THE SOCIETY FOR THE STUDY OF FERTILITY , 1960 .

[106]  E. Yurewicz,et al.  Isolation and preliminary characterization of a purified pig zona antigen (PPZA) from porcine oocytes. , 1983, Biology of reproduction.

[107]  R. Gwatkin EFFECT OF ENZYMES AND ACIDITY ON THE ZONA PELLUCIDA OF THE MOUSE EGG BEFORE AND AFTER FERTILIZATION. , 1964, Journal of reproduction and fertility.

[108]  B. T. Storey,et al.  Binding of mouse spermatozoa to the zonae pellucidae of mouse eggs in cumulus: evidence that the acrosomes remain substantially intact. , 1984, Biology of reproduction.

[109]  E. Evans Detailed mechanics of membrane-membrane adhesion and separation. II. Discrete kinetically trapped molecular cross-bridges. , 1985, Biophysical journal.

[110]  H. Berg,et al.  Physics of chemoreception. , 1977, Biophysical journal.

[111]  L. G. Tilney,et al.  Actin filaments in the acrosomal reaction of Limulus sperm. Motion generated by alterations in the packing of the filaments , 1975, The Journal of cell biology.

[112]  T. Rink,et al.  Single stretch-activated ion channels in vascular endothelial cells as mechanotransducers? , 1987, Nature.

[113]  D. Green,et al.  Mechanical hypothesis of sperm penetration. , 1984, Biophysical journal.

[114]  B. T. Storey,et al.  Mouse gamete interactions: the zona pellucida is the site of the acrosome reaction leading to fertilization in vitro. , 1982, Developmental biology.

[115]  F. Demayo,et al.  Zona pellucida composition: species cross reactivity and contraceptive potential of antiserum to a purified pig zona antigen (PPZA). , 1981, Biology of reproduction.

[116]  D. Fawcett,et al.  STUDIES ON THE FINE STRUCTURE OF THE MAMMALIAN TESTIS , 1955, The Journal of biophysical and biochemical cytology.

[117]  D. Phillips Problems in the analysis of mammalian fertilization , 1984 .

[118]  N. Mataga,et al.  Fluorescence quenching dynamics of tryptophan in proteins. Effect of internal rotation under potential barrier. , 1987, Biophysical journal.

[119]  C. R. Austin,et al.  Role of the rodent acrosome and perforatorium in fertilization , 1958, Proceedings of the Royal Society of London. Series B - Biological Sciences.

[120]  D. Wolf,et al.  Comparative solubility properties of the zonae pellucidae of unfertilized and fertilized mouse ova. , 1974, Biology of reproduction.

[121]  J. Fléchon,et al.  The location of acrosin and proacrosin in ram spermatozoa. , 1982, Journal of reproduction and fertility.

[122]  P. Wassarman,et al.  Structure and function of the zona pellucida: identification and characterization of the proteins of the mouse oocyte's zona pellucida. , 1980, Developmental biology.

[123]  D. Katz,et al.  Flagellar propulsion of human sperm in cervical mucus. , 1980, Biorheology.

[124]  D. Phillips,et al.  Surface properties of the zona pellucida. , 1980, The Journal of experimental zoology.

[125]  S. Ishijima,et al.  A quantitative description of flagellar movement in golden hamster spermatozoa. , 1985, The Journal of experimental biology.

[126]  C. Brown,et al.  Limited proteolysis of the porcine zona pellucida by homologous sperm acrosin. , 1985, Journal of reproduction and fertility.

[127]  G. Wessel,et al.  Intercellular recognition: quantitation of initial binding events. , 1981, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America.

[128]  R. Schnaar,et al.  Hepatocyte adhesion to immobilized carbohydrates. II. Cellular modification of the carbohydrate surface. , 1982, The Journal of biological chemistry.

[129]  D. Wolf,et al.  Calcium-dependent binding of mouse epididymal spermatozoa to the zona pellucida. , 1978, Developmental biology.

[130]  Some physiological aspects of the zona pellucida. Capacitation and the release of hyaluronidase from spermatozoa. , 2008 .

[131]  Z. Dickmann THE PASSAGE OF SPERMATOZOA THROUGH AND INTO THE ZONA PELLUCIDA OF THE RABBIT EGG. , 1964, The Journal of experimental biology.

[132]  D. Phillips,et al.  Surface architecture of the mouse and hamster zona pellucida and oocyte. , 1980, Journal of ultrastructure research.

[133]  P. Wassarman,et al.  Biosynthesis of the sperm receptor during oogenesis in the mouse. , 1983, The EMBO journal.

[134]  P. Saling Involvement of trypsin-like activity in binding of mouse spermatozoa to zonae pellucidae. , 1981, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America.

[135]  C. Tanford Protein denaturation. , 1968, Advances in protein chemistry.

[136]  J. E. Gordon,et al.  Structures: Or Why Things Don't Fall Down , 1978 .

[137]  C. Teuscher,et al.  pH and protease control of acrosomal content stasis and release during the guinea pig sperm acrosome reaction. , 1985, Biology of reproduction.

[138]  J. Bedford Ultrastructural changes in the sperm head during fertilization in the rabbit. , 1968, The American journal of anatomy.

[139]  J. Hartmann,et al.  Nature of the pre-penetration contact interactions between hamster gametes in vitro. , 1974, Journal of reproduction and fertility.