SPAD Figures of Merit for Photon-Counting, Photon-Timing, and Imaging Applications: A Review

Single-photon avalanche diodes (SPADs) emerged as the most suitable photodetectors for both single-photon counting and photon-timing applications. Different complementary metal-oxide-semiconductor (CMOS) devices have been reported in the literature, with quite different performance and some excelling in just few of them, but often at different operating conditions. In order to provide proper criteria for performance assessment, we present some figures of merit (FoMs) able to summarize the typical SPAD performance (i.e., photon detection efficiency, dark counting rate, afterpulsing probability, hold-off time, and timing jitter) and to identify a proper metric for SPAD comparisons, when used either as single-pixel detectors or in imaging arrays. The ultimate goal is not to define a ranking list of best-in-class detectors, but to quantitatively help the end-user to state the overall performance of different SPADs in either photon-counting, timing, or imaging applications. We review many CMOS SPADs from different research groups and companies, we compute the proposed FoMs for all them and, eventually, we provide an insight on present CMOS SPAD technologies and future trends.

[1]  Andrea L. Lacaita,et al.  20-ps timing resolution with single-photon avalanche diodes , 1989 .

[2]  A. Lacaita,et al.  Avalanche photodiodes and quenching circuits for single-photon detection. , 1996, Applied optics.

[3]  W. Gawron,et al.  Ultimate performance of infrared photodetectors and figure of merit of detector material , 1997 .

[4]  D. G. Kocher,et al.  Three-dimensional imaging laser radar with a photon-counting avalanche photodiode array and microchip laser. , 2002, Applied optics.

[5]  P.-A. Besse,et al.  Single photon detector fabricated in a complementary metal-oxide-semiconductor high-voltage technology , 2003 .

[6]  R. Popovic,et al.  First fully integrated 2-D array of single-photon detectors in standard CMOS technology , 2003, IEEE Photonics Technology Letters.

[7]  F. Zappa,et al.  Monolithic CMOS detector module for photon counting and picosecond timing , 2004, Proceedings of the 30th European Solid-State Circuits Conference (IEEE Cat. No.04EX850).

[8]  Bruno Sopko,et al.  Recent achievements in single photon detectors and their applications , 2004 .

[9]  P.-A. Besse,et al.  Design and characterization of a CMOS 3-D image sensor based on single photon avalanche diodes , 2005, IEEE Journal of Solid-State Circuits.

[10]  A. Simoni,et al.  CMOS Single-Photon Avalanche Diode Array for Time-Resolved Fluorescence Detection , 2006, 2006 Proceedings of the 32nd European Solid-State Circuits Conference.

[11]  S. Esener,et al.  STI-Bounded Single-Photon Avalanche Diode in a Deep-Submicrometer CMOS Technology , 2006, IEEE Electron Device Letters.

[12]  E. Charbon,et al.  A CMOS 64×48 Single Photon Avalanche Diode Array with Event-Driven Readout , 2006, 2006 Proceedings of the 32nd European Solid-State Circuits Conference.

[13]  Edoardo Charbon,et al.  A single photon avalanche diode array fabricated in 0.35-μm CMOS and based on an event-driven readout for TCSPC experiments , 2006, SPIE Optics East.

[14]  Alberto Tosi,et al.  Electronics for single photon avalanche diode arrays , 2007 .

[15]  A. Tosi,et al.  Principles and features of Single Photon Avalanche Diode Arrays , 2007 .

[16]  E. Charbon,et al.  A Single Photon Avalanche Diode Implemented in 130-nm CMOS Technology , 2007, IEEE Journal of Selected Topics in Quantum Electronics.

[17]  D. Pantic,et al.  A New Single Photon Avalanche Diode in CMOS High-Voltage Technology , 2007, TRANSDUCERS 2007 - 2007 International Solid-State Sensors, Actuators and Microsystems Conference.

[18]  Angelo Gulinatti,et al.  Large-area low-jitter silicon single photon avalanche diodes , 2008, SPIE OPTO.

[19]  M. Deen,et al.  Fully Integrated Single Photon Avalanche Diode Detector in Standard CMOS 0.18- $\mu$m Technology , 2008, IEEE Transactions on Electron Devices.

[20]  M. Gersbach,et al.  A 128 $\times$ 128 Single-Photon Image Sensor With Column-Level 10-Bit Time-to-Digital Converter Array , 2008, IEEE Journal of Solid-State Circuits.

[21]  T. Frach,et al.  The digital silicon photomultiplier — Principle of operation and intrinsic detector performance , 2009, 2009 IEEE Nuclear Science Symposium Conference Record (NSS/MIC).

[22]  E. Charbon,et al.  A low-noise single-photon detector implemented in a 130 nm CMOS imaging process , 2009, ESSDERC 2009.

[23]  E. Charbon,et al.  Single-Photon Synchronous Detection , 2009, IEEE Journal of Solid-State Circuits.

[24]  David Stoppa,et al.  A SPAD-based pixel linear array for high-speed time-gated fluorescence lifetime imaging , 2009, 2009 Proceedings of ESSCIRC.

[25]  R. Henderson,et al.  Edinburgh Research Explorer A Low Dark Count Single Photon Avalanche Diode Structure Compatible with Standard Nanometer Scale CMOS Technology , 2009 .

[26]  D. Stoppa,et al.  Single-Photon Avalanche Diode CMOS Sensor for Time-Resolved Fluorescence Measurements , 2009, IEEE Sensors Journal.

[27]  Angelo Gulinatti,et al.  High-throughput FCS using an LCOS spatial light modulator and an 8 × 1 SPAD array , 2010, Biomedical optics express.

[28]  Edoardo Charbon,et al.  A new single-photon avalanche diode in 90nm standard CMOS technology. , 2010, Optics express.

[29]  Robert K. Henderson,et al.  A 3×3, 5µm pitch, 3-transistor single photon avalanche diode array with integrated 11V bias generation in 90nm CMOS technology , 2010, 2010 International Electron Devices Meeting.

[30]  C. Niclass,et al.  A miniature actively recharged single-photon detector free of afterpulsing effects with 6ns dead time in a 0.18µm CMOS technology , 2010, 2010 International Electron Devices Meeting.

[31]  Ian Harrison,et al.  Design and characterisation of 16×1 parallel outputs SPAD array in 0.18 um CMOS technology , 2010, 2010 IEEE Asia Pacific Conference on Circuits and Systems.

[32]  Kenneth L. Shepard,et al.  A low-noise, single-photon avalanche diode in standard 0.13 μm complementary metal-oxide-semiconductor process , 2010 .

[33]  Joel S. Karp,et al.  Comparison of list-mode and DIRECT approaches for time-of-flight PET reconstruction , 2010, IEEE Nuclear Science Symposuim & Medical Imaging Conference.

[34]  A. Tosi,et al.  Two-Dimensional SPAD Imaging Camera for Photon Counting , 2010, IEEE Photonics Journal.

[35]  M. Deen,et al.  High-Speed, Single-Photon Avalanche-Photodiode Imager for Biomedical Applications , 2011, IEEE Sensors Journal.

[36]  W. Freude,et al.  185 MHz Count Rate, 139 dB Dynamic Range Single-Photon Avalanche Diode with Active Quenching Circuit in 130nm CMOS Technology , 2011 .

[37]  Edoardo Charbon,et al.  A 160×128 single-photon image sensor with on-pixel 55ps 10b time-to-digital converter , 2011, 2011 IEEE International Solid-State Circuits Conference.

[38]  Robert K. Henderson,et al.  A 128×96 pixel event-driven phase-domain ΔΣ-based fully digital 3D camera in 0.13μm CMOS imaging technology , 2011, 2011 IEEE International Solid-State Circuits Conference.

[39]  Y. Maruyama,et al.  An all-digital, time-gated 128X128 spad array for on-chip, filter-less fluorescence detection , 2011, 2011 16th International Solid-State Sensors, Actuators and Microsystems Conference.

[40]  Mona E. Zaghloul,et al.  A Single-Photon Avalanche Diode in CMOS 0.5μm n-well process , 2012, 2012 IEEE Sensors.

[41]  L. Grant,et al.  A High-Performance Single-Photon Avalanche Diode in 130-nm CMOS Imaging Technology , 2012, IEEE Electron Device Letters.

[42]  R. K. Henderson,et al.  A Single-Photon Avalanche Diode in 90-nm CMOS Imaging Technology With 44% Photon Detection Efficiency at 690 nm , 2012, IEEE Electron Device Letters.

[43]  P. Abshire,et al.  Large-area low-noise Single-Photon Avalanche Diodes in standard CMOS , 2012, 2012 IEEE Sensors.

[44]  Shingo Mandai,et al.  A wide spectral range single-photon avalanche diode fabricated in an advanced 180 nm CMOS technology. , 2012, Optics express.

[45]  Edoardo Charbon,et al.  A Time-Resolved, Low-Noise Single-Photon Image Sensor Fabricated in Deep-Submicron CMOS Technology , 2012, IEEE Journal of Solid-State Circuits.

[46]  S. Cova,et al.  New silicon SPAD technology for enhanced red-sensitivity, high-resolution timing and system integration , 2012 .

[47]  E. Vilella,et al.  A low-noise time-gated single-photon detector in a HV-CMOS technology for triggered imaging , 2013 .

[48]  Y. Nemirovsky,et al.  Measurements and Simulations of Low Dark Count Rate Single Photon Avalanche Diode Device in a Low Voltage 180-nm CMOS Image Sensor Technology , 2013, IEEE Transactions on Electron Devices.

[49]  David R. S. Cumming,et al.  Integrated ultrasonic particle positioning and low excitation light fluorescence imaging , 2013 .

[50]  A. Tosi,et al.  Fast Sensing and Quenching of CMOS SPADs for Minimal Afterpulsing Effects , 2013, IEEE Photonics Technology Letters.

[51]  E. Charbon,et al.  Architecture and applications of a high resolution gated SPAD image sensor. , 2014, Optics express.

[52]  W. Brockherde,et al.  100 000 Frames/s 64 × 32 Single-Photon Detector Array for 2-D Imaging and 3-D Ranging , 2014, IEEE Journal of Selected Topics in Quantum Electronics.

[53]  Matteo Perenzoni,et al.  A Fully Digital 8$\,\times\,$16 SiPM Array for PET Applications With Per-Pixel TDCs and Real-Time Energy Output , 2014, IEEE Journal of Solid-State Circuits.

[54]  Thomas Friedrich,et al.  A Single-Photon Avalanche Camera for Fluorescence Lifetime Imaging Microscopy and Correlation Spectroscopy , 2014, IEEE Journal of Selected Topics in Quantum Electronics.

[55]  Edoardo Charbon,et al.  A 1024$\,\times\,$ 8, 700-ps Time-Gated SPAD Line Sensor for Planetary Surface Exploration With Laser Raman Spectroscopy and LIBS , 2014, IEEE Journal of Solid-State Circuits.

[56]  W. Brockherde,et al.  CMOS SPADs with up to 500 μm diameter and 55% detection efficiency at 420 nm , 2014 .

[57]  Andrew J. Holmes,et al.  320×240 oversampled digital single photon counting image sensor , 2014, 2014 Symposium on VLSI Circuits Digest of Technical Papers.