Understanding the activity transport nexus in water and CO2 electrolysis: State of the art, challenges and perspectives

Abstract This article reviews the challenge of expanding the current research focus on water and CO2 electrolysis from catalyst-related insights towards achieving complete understanding of the activity transport nexus within full electrolysis cells. The challenge arises from the complex interaction of a multitude of phenomena taking place at different scales that span several orders of magnitude. An overview of current research on materials and components, experiments and simulations are provided. As well as obvious differences, there are similar principles and phenomena within water and CO2 electrolysis technologies, which are extracted. Against this background, a perspective on required future research within the individual fields, and the need for a multidisciplinary research approach across natural, materials and engineering sciences to tackle the activity transport nexus is presented.

[1]  K. A. Friedrich,et al.  Comprehensive investigation of novel pore-graded gas diffusion layers for high-performance and cost-effective proton exchange membrane electrolyzers , 2017 .

[2]  Dongke Zhang,et al.  Evaluating the Behavior of Electrolytic Gas Bubbles and Their Effect on the Cell Voltage in Alkaline Water Electrolysis , 2012 .

[3]  A. Co,et al.  Rapid Product Analysis for the Electroreduction of CO2 on Heterogeneous and Homogeneous Catalysts Using a Rotating Ring Detector , 2020, Journal of The Electrochemical Society.

[4]  U. Krewer,et al.  Identifying the oxygen evolution mechanism by microkinetic modelling of cyclic voltammograms , 2021, Electrochimica Acta.

[5]  Ay Su,et al.  Study of water-flooding behaviour in cathode channel of a transparent proton-exchange membrane fuel cell , 2006 .

[6]  P. Strasser,et al.  Molecular Nitrogen–Carbon Catalysts, Solid Metal Organic Framework Catalysts, and Solid Metal/Nitrogen‐Doped Carbon (MNC) Catalysts for the Electrochemical CO2 Reduction , 2018, Advanced Energy Materials.

[7]  D. Stolten,et al.  Synchrotron Radiography for a Proton Exchange Membrane (PEM) Electrolyzer , 2020, Fuel Cells.

[8]  A. Weber,et al.  Modeling Electrolyte Composition Effects on Anion-Exchange-Membrane Water Electrolyzer Performance , 2019, ECS Transactions.

[9]  J. Nørskov,et al.  pH effects on the electrochemical reduction of CO(2) towards C2 products on stepped copper , 2019, Nature Communications.

[10]  George Crabtree,et al.  The hydrogen economy , 2006, IEEE Engineering Management Review.

[11]  David Sinton,et al.  CO2 electrolysis to multicarbon products at activities greater than 1 A cm−2 , 2020, Science.

[12]  A. Dreizler,et al.  Advanced laser diagnostics for an improved understanding of premixed flame-wall interactions , 2015 .

[13]  F. Marone,et al.  Hierarchically Structured Porous Transport Layers for Polymer Electrolyte Water Electrolysis , 2019, Advanced Energy Materials.

[14]  T. Turek,et al.  Novel alkaline water electrolysis with nickel-iron gas diffusion electrode for oxygen evolution , 2019, International Journal of Hydrogen Energy.

[15]  Christine M. Gabardo,et al.  CO2 electroreduction to ethylene via hydroxide-mediated copper catalysis at an abrupt interface , 2018, Science.

[16]  K. Friedrich,et al.  Revealing Mechanistic Processes in Gas-Diffusion Electrodes During CO2 Reduction via Impedance Spectroscopy , 2020 .

[17]  Z. Chai,et al.  Mathematical modeling of an anion-exchange membrane water electrolyzer for hydrogen production , 2014 .

[18]  Jason D. Goodpaster,et al.  Mechanistic insights into electrochemical reduction of CO2 over Ag using density functional theory and transport models , 2017, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences.

[19]  Qiang Ye,et al.  In situ visualization study of CO2 gas bubble behavior in DMFC anode flow fields , 2005 .

[20]  Jinfeng Wu,et al.  Diagnostic tools in PEM fuel cell research: Part II , 2008 .

[21]  S. Grigoriev,et al.  Mathematical modeling and experimental study of the performance of PEM water electrolysis cell with different loadings of platinum metals in electrocatalytic layers , 2017 .

[22]  J. Schumacher,et al.  Modelling the effects of using gas diffusion layers with patterned wettability for advanced water management in proton exchange membrane fuel cells , 2018, 2007.15571.

[23]  Keith Scott,et al.  Carbon dioxide evolution patterns in direct methanol fuel cells , 1999 .

[24]  U. Nieken,et al.  Simulation of Electrolyte Imbibition in Gas Diffusion Electrodes , 2019, Chemie Ingenieur Technik.

[25]  S. Giddey,et al.  Challenges and trends in developing technology for electrochemically reducing CO2 in solid polymer electrolyte membrane reactors , 2019, Journal of CO2 Utilization.

[26]  Ferenc Darvas,et al.  Continuous-flow electroreduction of carbon dioxide , 2017 .

[27]  K. Sharp,et al.  Liquid droplet behavior and instability in a polymer electrolyte fuel cell flow channel , 2006 .

[28]  H. Gasteiger,et al.  OER Catalyst Stability Investigation Using RDE Technique: A Stability Measure or an Artifact? , 2019, Journal of The Electrochemical Society.

[29]  Ahmet Kusoglu,et al.  A Critical Review of Modeling Transport Phenomena in Polymer-Electrolyte Fuel Cells , 2014 .

[30]  Jiazang Chen,et al.  A General Method to Probe Oxygen Evolution Intermediates at Operating Conditions , 2019, Joule.

[31]  Johanna Kleinekorte,et al.  Sustainable Conversion of Carbon Dioxide: An Integrated Review of Catalysis and Life Cycle Assessment. , 2017, Chemical reviews.

[32]  Todd D. Fansler,et al.  Spray measurement technology: a review , 2014 .

[33]  A. W. Maijenburg,et al.  Cu2O/TiO2 Nanowire Assemblies as Photocathodes for Solar Hydrogen Evolution: Influence of Diameter, Length and NumberDensity of Wires , 2020 .

[34]  W. Schuhmann,et al.  Local Activities of Hydroxide and Water Determine the Operation of Silver-Based Oxygen Depolarized Cathodes. , 2018, Angewandte Chemie.

[35]  S. Garg,et al.  Advances and challenges in electrochemical CO2reduction processes: an engineering and design perspective looking beyond new catalyst materials , 2020, Journal of Materials Chemistry A.

[36]  Kevin P. Chen,et al.  Distributed Optical Fiber Sensors with Ultrafast Laser Enhanced Rayleigh Backscattering Profiles for Real-Time Monitoring of Solid Oxide Fuel Cell Operations , 2017, Scientific Reports.

[37]  Wilson A. Smith,et al.  CO2 reduction on gas-diffusion electrodes and why catalytic performance must be assessed at commercially-relevant conditions , 2019, Energy & Environmental Science.

[38]  R. Hanke-Rauschenbach,et al.  Hydrogen Crossover in PEM and Alkaline Water Electrolysis: Mechanisms, Direct Comparison and Mitigation Strategies , 2018 .

[39]  C. Delacourt,et al.  Mathematical Modeling of CO2 Reduction to CO in Aqueous Electrolytes II. Study of an Electrolysis Cell Making Syngas ( C O + H 2 ) from C O 2 and H 2 O Reduction at Room Temperature , 2010 .

[40]  Brian A. Rohr,et al.  Micro-kinetic model of electrochemical carbon dioxide reduction over platinum in non-aqueous solvents. , 2020, Physical chemistry chemical physics : PCCP.

[41]  Y. Surendranath,et al.  Molecular Control of Heterogeneous Electrocatalysis through Graphite Conjugation. , 2019, Accounts of chemical research.

[42]  S. Kær,et al.  VOF modelling of gas–liquid flow in PEM water electrolysis cell micro-channels , 2017 .

[43]  T. Turek,et al.  Influence of process conditions on gas purity in alkaline water electrolysis , 2017 .

[44]  L. Gubler,et al.  Advanced Water Management in PEFCs: Diffusion Layers with Patterned Wettability I. Synthetic Routes, Wettability Tuning and Thermal Stability , 2016 .

[45]  Danielle A. Salvatore,et al.  Electrolytic CO2 Reduction in a Flow Cell. , 2018, Accounts of chemical research.

[46]  Fulvio Scarano,et al.  Tomographic PIV: principles and practice , 2012 .

[47]  S. Jakirlic,et al.  Experimental characterization of the velocity boundary layer in a motored IC engine , 2018, International Journal of Heat and Fluid Flow.

[48]  Y. Jiao,et al.  Emerging Two-Dimensional Nanomaterials for Electrocatalysis. , 2018, Chemical reviews.

[49]  Shanhai Ge,et al.  In Situ Imaging of Liquid Water and Ice Formation in an Operating PEFC during Cold Start , 2006 .

[50]  N. Wagner,et al.  Influence of Temperature on the Performance of Gas Diffusion Electrodes in the CO 2 Reduction Reaction , 2019, ChemElectroChem.

[51]  P. Haug,et al.  Process modelling of an alkaline water electrolyzer , 2017 .

[52]  A. Bell,et al.  Modeling gas-diffusion electrodes for CO2 reduction. , 2018, Physical chemistry chemical physics : PCCP.

[53]  Matthew W. Kanan,et al.  The future of low-temperature carbon dioxide electrolysis depends on solving one basic problem , 2020, Nature Communications.

[54]  T. Jaramillo,et al.  What would it take for renewably powered electrosynthesis to displace petrochemical processes? , 2019, Science.

[55]  S. Qiao,et al.  Recent Advances in Inorganic Heterogeneous Electrocatalysts for Reduction of Carbon Dioxide , 2016, Advanced materials.

[56]  D. Wilkinson,et al.  Model of oxygen bubbles and performance impact in the porous transport layer of PEM water electrolysis cells , 2017 .

[57]  H. Baltruschat.  Differential electrochemical mass spectrometry , 2004, Journal of the American Society for Mass Spectrometry.

[58]  Simon Geiger,et al.  The Common Intermediates of Oxygen Evolution and Dissolution Reactions during Water Electrolysis on Iridium , 2018, Angewandte Chemie.

[59]  Marcus Aldén,et al.  Visualization and understanding of combustion processes using spatially and temporally resolved laser diagnostic techniques , 2011 .

[60]  H. Kleebe,et al.  Carbon nanocasting in ion-track etched polycarbonate membranes , 2017 .

[61]  G. Centi,et al.  Beyond Solar Fuels: Renewable Energy-Driven Chemistry. , 2017, ChemSusChem.

[62]  B. Yeo,et al.  Characterization of Electrocatalytic Water Splitting and CO2 Reduction Reactions Using In Situ/Operando Raman Spectroscopy , 2017 .

[63]  Wilson A. Smith,et al.  In Situ Infrared Spectroscopy Reveals Persistent Alkalinity near Electrode Surfaces during CO2 Electroreduction , 2019, Journal of the American Chemical Society.

[64]  Paul J. A. Kenis,et al.  Co-electrolysis of CO2 and glycerol as a pathway to carbon chemicals with improved technoeconomics due to low electricity consumption , 2019, Nature Energy.

[65]  Nicolai Fog Gade-Nielsen,et al.  A Review of Planar PIV Systems and Image Processing Tools for Lab-On-Chip Microfluidics , 2018, Sensors.

[66]  Mandin Philippe,et al.  Modelling and calculation of the current density distribution evolution at vertical gas-evolving electrodes , 2005 .

[67]  I. Chorkendorff,et al.  Analysis of Mass Flows and Membrane Crossover in CO2 Reduction at High Current Densities in a MEA-Type Electrolyzer. , 2019, ACS applied materials & interfaces.

[68]  K. Kohse-Höinghaus.  Laser techniques for the quantitative detection of reactive intermediates in combustion systems , 1991 .

[69]  Alfred Ludwig,et al.  Oxygen and hydrogen evolution reactions on Ru, RuO2, Ir, and IrO2 thin film electrodes in acidic and alkaline electrolytes: A comparative study on activity and stability , 2016 .

[70]  Michael B. Pomfret,et al.  In situ optical studies of solid-oxide fuel cells. , 2010, Annual review of analytical chemistry.

[71]  Ronald K. Hanson,et al.  Applications of quantitative laser sensors to kinetics, propulsion and practical energy systems , 2011 .

[72]  L. Gubler,et al.  Advanced Water Management in PEFCs: Diffusion Layers with Patterned Wettability III. Operando Characterization with Neutron Imaging , 2016 .

[73]  De‐Yin Wu,et al.  Promoting electrocatalytic CO2 reduction to formate via sulfur-boosting water activation on indium surfaces , 2019, Nature Communications.

[74]  D. Stolten,et al.  A comprehensive review on PEM water electrolysis , 2013 .

[75]  D. Noble,et al.  Simplified models for predicting the onset of liquid water droplet instability at the gas diffusion layer/gas flow channel interface , 2005 .

[76]  K. Hara,et al.  Electrochemical reduction of high pressure CO2 at Pb, Hg and In electrodes in an aqueous KHCO3 solution , 1995 .

[77]  Abhijit Dutta,et al.  Electrochemical Reduction of CO2 into Multicarbon Alcohols on Activated Cu Mesh Catalysts: An Identical Location (IL) Study , 2017 .

[78]  K. Sundmacher,et al.  Analysis of mass transport processes in the anodic porous transport layer in PEM water electrolysers , 2019, International Journal of Hydrogen Energy.

[79]  Christine M. Gabardo,et al.  Electrochemical CO2 Reduction into Chemical Feedstocks: From Mechanistic Electrocatalysis Models to System Design , 2019, Advanced materials.

[80]  I. Neuweiler,et al.  Modeling Overpotentials Related to Mass Transport Through Porous Transport Layers of PEM Water Electrolysis Cells , 2020, Journal of The Electrochemical Society.

[81]  Abdullah M. Asiri,et al.  Recent Progress in Cobalt‐Based Heterogeneous Catalysts for Electrochemical Water Splitting , 2016, Advanced materials.

[82]  Jingguang G. Chen,et al.  Catalytic reduction of CO2 by H2 for synthesis of CO, methanol and hydrocarbons: challenges and opportunities , 2016 .

[83]  F. Büchi,et al.  Polymer Electrolyte Water Electrolysis: Correlating Porous Transport Layer Structural Properties and Performance: Part I. Tomographic Analysis of Morphology and Topology , 2019, Journal of The Electrochemical Society.

[84]  Mahmut D. Mat,et al.  A two-phase flow model for hydrogen evolution in an electrochemical cell , 2004 .

[85]  K. Friedrich,et al.  Measuring and modeling mass transport losses in proton exchange membrane water electrolyzers using electrochemical impedance spectroscopy , 2019, Journal of Power Sources.

[86]  N. Djilali,et al.  Effect of compression on liquid water transport and microstructure of PEMFC gas diffusion layers , 2007 .

[87]  A. Sacco.  Electrochemical impedance spectroscopy as a tool to investigate the electroreduction of carbon dioxide: A short review , 2018, Journal of CO2 Utilization.

[88]  Julie C. Fornaciari,et al.  The Role of Water in Vapor-fed Proton-Exchange-Membrane Electrolysis , 2020, Journal of The Electrochemical Society.

[89]  Jürgen Wolfrum,et al.  Lasers in combustion: From basic theory to practical devices , 1998 .

[90]  J. Nørskov,et al.  Progress and Perspectives of Electrochemical CO2 Reduction on Copper in Aqueous Electrolyte. , 2019, Chemical reviews.

[91]  Antonio J. Martín,et al.  Towards sustainable fuels and chemicals through the electrochemical reduction of CO2: lessons from water electrolysis , 2015 .

[92]  Pierre Millet,et al.  Electrochemical characterization of Polymer Electrolyte Membrane Water Electrolysis Cells , 2014 .

[93]  Carl D. Meinhart,et al.  Recent Advances in Micro-Particle Image Velocimetry , 2010 .

[94]  I. Manke,et al.  Prediction of Electrolyte Distribution in Technical Gas Diffusion Electrodes: From Imaging to SPH Simulations , 2020, Transport in Porous Media.

[95]  A. Bell,et al.  Direct Observation of the Local Reaction Environment during the Electrochemical Reduction of CO2. , 2018, Journal of the American Chemical Society.

[96]  Andrew B. Bocarsly,et al.  Mechanistic Insights into the Reduction of CO2 on Tin Electrodes using in Situ ATR-IR Spectroscopy , 2015 .

[97]  S. Kær,et al.  Towards uniformly distributed heat, mass and charge: A flow field design study for high pressure and high current density operation of PEM electrolysis cells , 2019, Electrochimica Acta.

[98]  C. Hebling,et al.  Visualization of water buildup in the cathode of a transparent PEM fuel cell , 2003 .

[99]  Abhijit Dutta,et al.  Size-Dependent Activity of Palladium Nanoparticles: Efficient Conversion of CO2 into Formate at Low Overpotentials. , 2017, ChemSusChem.

[100]  F. Marone,et al.  Progress in In Situ X-Ray Tomographic Microscopy of Liquid Water in Gas Diffusion Layers of PEFC , 2011 .

[101]  B. Cetegen,et al.  Spatially resolved optical measurements of water partial pressure and temperature in a PEM fuel cell under dynamic operating conditions , 2006 .

[102]  Baki M. Cetegen,et al.  In Situ Optical Diagnostics for Measurements of Water Vapor Partial Pressure in a PEM Fuel Cell , 2006 .

[103]  Dario R. Dekel,et al.  Impact of carbonation processes in anion exchange membrane fuel cells , 2017 .

[104]  Xiaoyu Zheng,et al.  Additive manufacturing of complex micro-architected graphene aerogels , 2018 .

[105]  Aimy Bazylak,et al.  Synchrotron X-ray radiographic investigations of liquid water transport behavior in a PEMFC with MPL-coated GDLs , 2013 .

[106]  R. Hanke-Rauschenbach,et al.  Current density effect on hydrogen permeation in PEM water electrolyzers , 2017 .

[107]  Jan-Philipp Grote,et al.  Coupling of a scanning flow cell with online electrochemical mass spectrometry for screening of reaction selectivity. , 2014, The Review of scientific instruments.

[108]  Ay Su,et al.  Studies on flooding in PEM fuel cell cathode channels , 2006 .

[109]  Scott A. Mauger,et al.  Impact of Microporous Layer Roughness on Gas-Diffusion-Electrode-Based Polymer Electrolyte Membrane Fuel Cell Performance , 2019, ACS Applied Energy Materials.

[110]  K. Mayrhofer,et al.  Various CO2-to-CO Electrolyzer Cell and Operation Mode Designs to avoid CO2-Crossover from Cathode to Anode , 2019 .

[111]  Michael R. Allshouse,et al.  Review—Mathematical Formulations of Electrochemically Gas-Evolving Systems , 2018, Journal of the Electrochemical Society.

[112]  Matthias Wessling,et al.  The electrolyte matters: Stable systems for high rate electrochemical CO2 reduction , 2019, Journal of CO2 Utilization.

[113]  Bin Zhang,et al.  Recent advances in transition metal phosphide nanomaterials: synthesis and applications in hydrogen evolution reaction. , 2016, Chemical Society reviews.

[114]  D. Leung,et al.  Modeling of a microfluidic electrochemical cell for CO2 utilization and fuel production , 2013 .

[115]  Jin-Xun Liu,et al.  First-principles microkinetics simulations of electrochemical reduction of CO2 over Cu catalysts , 2020 .

[116]  Nigel P. Brandon,et al.  Hydrogen and fuel cells: Towards a sustainable energy future , 2008 .

[117]  Alexander Mitsos,et al.  Modular modeling of electrochemical reactors: Comparison of CO2-electolyzers , 2020, Comput. Chem. Eng..

[118]  I. Manke,et al.  Design of an In-Operando Cell for X-Ray and Neutron Imaging of Oxygen-Depolarized Cathodes in Chlor-Alkali Electrolysis , 2019, Materials.

[119]  Thomas J. Schmidt,et al.  Design Principles of Bipolar Electrochemical Co-Electrolysis Cells for Efficient Reduction of Carbon Dioxide from Gas Phase at Low Temperature , 2019, Journal of The Electrochemical Society.

[120]  Xuan Liu,et al.  Water flooding and two-phase flow in cathode channels of proton exchange membrane fuel cells , 2006 .

[121]  J. Sansinena,et al.  Oxygen reduction reaction on a Pt/carbon fuel cell catalyst in the presence of trace quantities of ammonium ions: An RRDE study , 2012 .

[122]  R. Schlögl.  Put the Sun in the Tank: Future Developments in Sustainable Energy Systems. , 2018, Angewandte Chemie.

[123]  Hang Guo,et al.  Temperature distribution on the MEA surface of a PEMFC with serpentine channel flow bed , 2006 .

[124]  Brian P. Setzler,et al.  Examination of Near-Electrode Concentration Gradients and Kinetic Impacts on the Electrochemical Reduction of CO2 using Surface-Enhanced Infrared Spectroscopy , 2018 .

[125]  Xun Lu,et al.  The effect of electrolyte composition on the electroreduction of CO2 to CO on Ag based gas diffusion electrodes. , 2016, Physical chemistry chemical physics : PCCP.

[126]  D. Stolten,et al.  Homogeneity analysis of square meter-sized electrodes for PEM electrolysis and PEM fuel cells , 2018, Journal of Coatings Technology and Research.

[127]  Masahiro Shiozawa,et al.  Super-cooled water behavior inside polymer electrolyte fuel cell cross-section below freezing temperature , 2008 .

[128]  R. Hanke-Rauschenbach,et al.  Understanding Electrical Under- and Overshoots in Proton Exchange Membrane Water Electrolysis Cells , 2019, Journal of The Electrochemical Society.

[129]  Ronald L. Cook,et al.  High Rate Gas Phase CO 2 Reduction to Ethylene and Methane Using Gas Diffusion Electrodes , 1990 .

[131]  Felix N. Büchi,et al.  Critical Review—Identifying Critical Gaps for Polymer Electrolyte Water Electrolysis Development , 2017 .

[132]  Shannon S. Nicley,et al.  Catalyst Stability Benchmarking for the Oxygen Evolution Reaction: The Importance of Backing Electrode Material and Dissolution in Accelerated Aging Studies. , 2017, ChemSusChem.

[133]  Yitung Chen,et al.  Numerical modeling of three-dimensional two-phase gas–liquid flow in the flow field plate of a PEM electrolysis cell , 2010 .

[134]  P. M. Kristiansen,et al.  Engineered Water Highways in Fuel Cells: Radiation Grafting of Gas Diffusion Layers , 2015, Advanced materials.

[135]  J. Rossmeisl,et al.  Oxygen evolution reaction: a perspective on a decade of atomic scale simulations† , 2020, Chemical science.

[136]  D. Brett,et al.  Two-dimensional model of low-pressure PEM electrolyser: Two-phase flow regime, electrochemical modelling and experimental validation , 2017 .

[137]  W. Schuhmann,et al.  The Key Role of Water Activity for the Operating Behavior and Dynamics of Oxygen Depolarized Cathodes , 2019 .

[138]  Gianpietro Cossali,et al.  Droplet Interactions and Spray Processes , 2020 .

[139]  J. Banhart,et al.  In operando synchrotron X-ray radiography studies of polymer electrolyte membrane water electrolyzers , 2015 .

[140]  N. Djilali,et al.  Ex situ visualization of liquid water transport in PEM fuel cell gas diffusion layers , 2006 .

[141]  U. Krewer,et al.  Processes and Their Limitations in Oxygen Depolarized Cathodes: A Dynamic Model-Based Analysis. , 2019, ChemSusChem.

[142]  G. Mul,et al.  Overall mass balance evaluation of electrochemical reactors: The case of CO2 reduction , 2020 .

[143]  P. Yang,et al.  Address the “alkalinity problem” in CO2 electrolysis with catalyst design and translation , 2021 .

[144]  Michael Eikerling,et al.  Water Management in Cathode Catalyst Layers of PEM Fuel Cells A Structure-Based Model , 2006 .

[145]  Chaoyang Wang,et al.  Visualization of Liquid Water Transport in a PEFC , 2004 .

[146]  N. Kardjilov,et al.  Operando Laboratory X-Ray Imaging of Silver-Based Gas Diffusion Electrodes during Oxygen Reduction Reaction in Highly Alkaline Media , 2019, Materials.

[147]  Abhijit Dutta,et al.  Monitoring the Chemical State of Catalysts for CO2 Electroreduction: An In Operando Study , 2015 .

[148]  T. Clees,et al.  The origin of the hysteresis in cyclic voltammetric response of alkaline methanol electrooxidation. , 2020, Physical chemistry chemical physics : PCCP.

[149]  Shohji Tsushima,et al.  In situ Diagnostics for Water Transport in Proton Exchange Membrane Fuel Cells , 2011 .

[150]  K. Friedrich,et al.  Understanding the Role of Water Flow and the Porous Transport Layer on the Performance of Proton Exchange Membrane Water Electrolyzers , 2018, ACS Sustainable Chemistry & Engineering.

[151]  C. Delacourt,et al.  Mathematical Modeling of CO2 Reduction to CO in Aqueous Electrolytes I. Kinetic Study on Planar Silver and Gold Electrodes , 2010 .

[152]  T. Turek,et al.  Alkaline Water Electrolysis Powered by Renewable Energy: A Review , 2020, Processes.

[153]  A. Eckbreth.  Laser Diagnostics for Temperature and Species in Unsteady Combustion , 1996 .

[154]  A. Esposito,et al.  Activated Carbon in the Third Dimension—3D Printing of a Tuned Porous Carbon , 2019, Advanced science.

[155]  Hongbing Yu,et al.  Enhanced electrochemical reduction of carbon dioxide to formic acid using a two-layer gas diffusion electrode in a microbial electrolysis cell , 2015 .

[156]  M. Laguna-Bercero.  Recent advances in high temperature electrolysis using solid oxide fuel cells: A review , 2012 .

[157]  C. Jallut,et al.  A multiscale physical model for the transient analysis of PEM water electrolyzer anodes. , 2012, Physical chemistry chemical physics : PCCP.

[158]  J. Baek,et al.  Metal-free catalysts for oxygen reduction reaction. , 2015, Chemical reviews.

[159]  A. Bazylak,et al.  Transient Gas Distribution in Porous Transport Layers of Polymer Electrolyte Membrane Electrolyzers , 2020 .

[160]  K. Mayrhofer,et al.  Electrochemical Real-Time Mass Spectrometry (EC-RTMS): Monitoring Electrochemical Reaction Products in Real Time. , 2019, Angewandte Chemie.

[161]  U. Krewer,et al.  Electrochemical oxidation of carbon-containing fuels and their dynamics in low-temperature fuel cells. , 2011, Chemphyschem : a European journal of chemical physics and physical chemistry.

[162]  T. Jaramillo,et al.  Gas-Diffusion Electrodes for Carbon Dioxide Reduction: A New Paradigm , 2018, ACS Energy Letters.

[163]  Christof Schulz,et al.  Visualization of the evaporation of a diesel spray using combined Mie and Rayleigh scattering techniques , 2009 .

[164]  I. Chorkendorff,et al.  Benchmarking the Stability of Oxygen Evolution Reaction Catalysts: The Importance of Monitoring Mass Losses , 2014 .

[165]  A. Eckbreth.  Laser Diagnostics for Combustion Temperature and Species , 1988 .

[166]  F. Calle‐Vallejo,et al.  A brief review of the computational modeling of CO2 electroreduction on Cu electrodes , 2018, Current Opinion in Electrochemistry.