Serotype diversity and reassortment between human and animal rotavirus strains: implications for rotavirus vaccine programs.

The development of rotavirus vaccines that are based on heterotypic or serotype-specific immunity has prompted many countries to establish programs to assess the disease burden associated with rotavirus infection and the distribution of rotavirus strains. Strain surveillance helps to determine whether the most prevalent local strains are likely to be covered by the serotype antigens found in current vaccines. After introduction of a vaccine, this surveillance could detect which strains might not be covered by the vaccine. Almost 2 decades ago, studies demonstrated that 4 globally common rotavirus serotypes (G1-G4) represent >90% of the rotavirus strains in circulation. Subsequently, these 4 serotypes were used in the development of reassortant vaccines predicated on serotype-specific immunity. More recently, the application of reverse-transcription polymerase chain reaction genotyping, nucleotide sequencing, and antigenic characterization methods has confirmed the importance of the 4 globally common types, but a much greater strain diversity has also been identified (we now recognize strains with at least 42 P-G combinations). These studies also identified globally (G9) or regionally (G5, G8, and P2A[6]) common serotype antigens not covered by the reassortant vaccines that have undergone efficacy trials. The enormous diversity and capacity of human rotaviruses for change suggest that rotavirus vaccines must provide good heterotypic protection to be optimally effective.

[1]  R. Glass,et al.  Similarity of the VP4 protein of human rotavirus strain 116E to that of the bovine B223 strain. , 1993, Virology.

[2]  S. Ueda,et al.  Relative frequency of VP4 gene alleles among human rotaviruses recovered over a 10-year period (1982-1991) from Japanese children with diarrhea , 1993, Journal of clinical microbiology.

[3]  R. Glass,et al.  The expanding diversity of rotaviruses , 2002, The Lancet.

[4]  V. Gouvea,et al.  Detection of Porcine Rotavirus Type G9 and of a Mixture of Types G1 and G5 Associated with Wa-Like VP4 Specificity: Evidence for Natural Human-Porcine Genetic Reassortment , 1999, Journal of Clinical Microbiology.

[5]  M. Molyneux,et al.  Rotavirus Strain Diversity in Blantyre, Malawi, from 1997 to 1999 , 2001, Journal of Clinical Microbiology.

[6]  M. Miller,et al.  Policy analysis of the use of hepatitis B, Haemophilus influenzae type b-, Streptococcus pneumoniae-conjugate and rotavirus vaccines in national immunization schedules. , 2000, Health economics.

[7]  A. Oduro,et al.  Prevalence of unusual human rotavirus strains in Ghanaian children , 2001, Journal of medical virology.

[8]  S. Omilabu,et al.  Diversity of human rotavirus VP6, VP7, and VP4 in Lagos State, Nigeria. , 2002, Journal of health, population, and nutrition.

[9]  R. Glass,et al.  Evidence of High-Frequency Genomic Reassortment of Group A Rotavirus Strains in Bangladesh: Emergence of Type G9 in 1995 , 1999, Journal of Clinical Microbiology.

[10]  H. Greenberg,et al.  Isolation of a Human Rotavirus Strain with a Super-Short RNA Pattern and a New P2 Subtype , 1999, Journal of Clinical Microbiology.

[11]  J. Cohen,et al.  Molecular epidemiology of human rotaviruses in Santiago, Chile. , 1997, The Pediatric infectious disease journal.

[12]  H. Greenberg,et al.  Sequence analysis of gene 11 equivalents from "short" and "super short" strains of rotavirus , 1990, Journal of virology.

[13]  E. Palombo,et al.  Genetic and antigenic characterization of a serotype G6 human rotavirus isolated in melbourne, Australia , 1995, Journal of medical virology.

[14]  O. Nakagomi,et al.  Apparent Re‐Emergence of Serotype G9 in 1995 among Rotaviruses Recovered from Japanese Children Hospitalized with Acute Gastroenteritis , 2000, Microbiology and immunology.

[15]  R. Chanock,et al.  Antigenic relationships among human rotaviruses as determined by outer capsid protein VP4. , 1990, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America.

[16]  S. Blome,et al.  Molecular Characterization of VP6 Genes of Human Rotavirus Isolates: Correlation of Genogroups with Subgroups and Evidence of Independent Segregation , 2002, Journal of Virology.

[17]  R. Glass,et al.  Molecular and serologic characterization of novel serotype G8 human rotavirus strains detected in Blantyre, Malawi. , 2000, Virology.

[18]  V. Gouvea,et al.  Is rotavirus a population of reassortants? , 1995, Trends in microbiology.

[19]  N. Kobayashi,et al.  Genomic Diversity of Group A Rotavirus Strains Infecting Humans in Eastern India , 2002, Journal of Clinical Microbiology.

[20]  D. Matson,et al.  Genomic and antigenic variation among rotavirus strains circulating in a large city of Argentina , 2000, Journal of medical virology.

[21]  M. Adah,et al.  Further characterization of field strains of rotavirus from Nigeria VP4 genotype P6 most frequently identified among symptomatically infected children. , 1997, Journal of tropical pediatrics.

[22]  R. Glass,et al.  Unusual diversity of human rotavirus G and P genotypes in India , 1996, Journal of clinical microbiology.

[23]  G. Gerna,et al.  Isolation and characterization of two distinct human rotavirus strains with G6 specificity , 1992, Journal of clinical microbiology.

[24]  K. Taniguchi,et al.  Serological and genomic characterization of human rotaviruses detected in China , 1998, Journal of medical virology.

[25]  K. Green,et al.  Human rotavirus strain 69M has a unique VP4 as determined by amino acid sequence analysis. , 1991, Virology.

[26]  F. O’Halloran,et al.  Molecular Characterization of Rotavirus in Ireland: Detection of Novel Strains Circulating in the Population , 2000, Journal of Clinical Microbiology.

[27]  I. Peenze,et al.  Distribution of Rotavirus VP7 Serotypes and VP4 Genotypes Circulating in Sousse, Tunisia, from 1995 to 1999: Emergence of Natural Human Reassortants , 2000, Journal of Clinical Microbiology.

[28]  R. Chanock,et al.  Genetic relatedness among human rotaviruses , 1985, Journal of Medical Virology.

[29]  B. Coulson Typing of human rotavirus VP4 by an enzyme immunoassay using monoclonal antibodies , 1993, Journal of clinical microbiology.

[30]  L. Unicomb,et al.  Simple and specific enzyme immunoassay using monoclonal antibodies for serotyping human rotaviruses , 1987, Journal of clinical microbiology.

[31]  B. Li,et al.  Nucleotide sequence of the VP4-encoding gene of an unusual human rotavirus (HCR3). , 1993, Virology.

[32]  M. Pichichero,et al.  The development of multivalent bovine rotavirus (strain WC3) reassortant vaccine for infants. , 1996, The Journal of infectious diseases.

[33]  C. M. Soares,et al.  Molecular and Serological Characterization of Group A Rotavirus Isolates Obtained from Hospitalized Children in Goiânia, Brazil, 1998–2000 , 2003, European Journal of Clinical Microbiology and Infectious Diseases.

[34]  G. Barnes,et al.  Multiple-gene rotavirus reassortants responsible for an outbreak of gastroenteritis in central and northern Australia. , 1996, The Journal of general virology.

[35]  H. Greenberg,et al.  Serological analysis of the subgroup protein of rotavirus, using monoclonal antibodies , 1983, Infection and immunity.

[36]  I. Shif Survey of rotavirus G and P types associated with human gastroenteritis in São Paulo, Brazil, from 1986 to 1992 , 1994, Journal of clinical microbiology.

[37]  R. Glass,et al.  Molecular characterization of serotype G9 rotavirus strains from a global collection. , 2000, Virology.

[38]  H. Greenberg,et al.  Both surface proteins (VP4 and VP7) of an asymptomatic neonatal rotavirus strain (I321) have high levels of sequence identity with the homologous proteins of a serotype 10 bovine rotavirus. , 1993, Virology.

[39]  R. Glass,et al.  Review of G and P typing results from a global collection of rotavirus strains: implications for vaccine development. , 1996, The Journal of infectious diseases.

[40]  G. Kang,et al.  Characterisation of rotavirus G9 strains isolated in the UK between 1995 and 1998 , 2000, Journal of medical virology.

[41]  M. Iturriza-Gómara,et al.  Comparison of specific and random priming in the reverse transcriptase polymerase chain reaction for genotyping group A rotaviruses. , 1999, Journal of virological methods.

[42]  K. Taniguchi,et al.  Complete nucleotide sequence of the gene encoding VP4 of a human rotavirus (strain K8) which has unique VP4 neutralization epitopes , 1989, Journal of virology.

[43]  H. Greenberg,et al.  Exclusive asymptomatic neonatal infections by human rotavirus strains having subgroup I specificity and “long” RNA electropherotype , 2005, Archives of Virology.

[44]  R. Glass,et al.  Characterization of the G serotype and genogroup of New Delhi newborn rotavirus strain 116E. , 1993, Virology.

[45]  A. Hall,et al.  Incidence and risk factors of paediatric rotavirus diarrhoea in northern Ghana , 2003, Tropical medicine & international health : TM & IH.

[46]  R. Ward,et al.  Serotypic and genotypic characterization of human serotype 10 rotaviruses from asymptomatic neonates , 1993, Journal of clinical microbiology.

[47]  R. Glass,et al.  Rotavirus G and P types in children with acute diarrhea in Blantyre, Malawi, from 1997 to 1998: Predominance of novel P[6]G8 Strains , 1999, Journal of medical virology.

[48]  V. Martella,et al.  Detection of the Emerging Rotavirus G9 Serotype at High Frequency in Italy , 2003, Journal of Clinical Microbiology.

[49]  Y. Hoshino,et al.  Global distribution of rotavirus serotypes/genotypes and its implication for the development and implementation of an effective rotavirus vaccine , 2005, Reviews in medical virology.

[50]  A. Steele,et al.  Characterisation of rotaviruses from children treated at a London hospital during 1996: Emergence of strainsG9P2A[6] and G3P2A[6] , 2000, Journal of medical virology.

[51]  C. Parry,et al.  Characterization of rotaviruses causing diarrhoea in Vietnamese children , 2003, Annals of tropical medicine and parasitology.

[52]  K. Bok,et al.  Surveillance for rotavirus in Argentina , 2001, Journal of medical virology.

[53]  V. Gouvea,et al.  A novel human rotavirus serotype with dual G5-G11 specificity. , 1997, The Journal of general virology.

[54]  E. Palombo,et al.  Characterisation of a “European‐like” serotype G8 human rotavirus isolated in Australia , 2000, Journal of medical virology.

[55]  V. Zacharova,et al.  Increased Prevalence of G1P[4] Genotype among Children with Rotavirus-Associated Gastroenteritis in Metropolitan Detroit , 2003, Journal of Clinical Microbiology.

[56]  O. Nakagomi,et al.  The Distribution of G (VP7) and P (VP4) Serotypes among Human Rotaviruses Recovered from Japanese Children with Diarrhea , 1994, Microbiology and immunology.

[57]  R. Glass,et al.  Characterization of nontypeable rotavirus strains from the United States: identification of a new rotavirus reassortant (P2A[6],G12) and rare P3[9] strains related to bovine rotaviruses. , 2002, Virology.

[58]  R. Glass,et al.  Diversity of Rotavirus Strains among Children with Acute Diarrhea in China: 1998-2000 Surveillance Study , 2002, Journal of Clinical Microbiology.

[59]  P. Offit Rotaviruses: Immunological Determinants of Protection Against Infection and Disease , 1994, Advances in Virus Research.

[60]  Ki-Jung Kim,et al.  Distribution of human group a rotavirus VP7 and VP4 types circulating in Seoul, Korea between 1998 and 2000 , 2003, Journal of medical virology.

[61]  R. Glass,et al.  Characterization of human rotavirus genotype P[8]G5 from Brazil by probe-hybridization and sequence , 2005, Archives of Virology.

[62]  R. Glass,et al.  Protection conferred by neonatal rotavirus infection against subsequent rotavirus diarrhea. , 1993, The Journal of infectious diseases.

[63]  R. Chanock,et al.  Independent segregation of two antigenic specificities (VP3 and VP7) involved in neutralization of rotavirus infectivity. , 1985, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America.

[64]  R. Glass,et al.  Eight-Year Survey of Human Rotavirus Strains Demonstrates Circulation of Unusual G and P Types in Hungary , 2004, Journal of Clinical Microbiology.

[65]  E. Kohli,et al.  Genotyping of Rotavirus Strains Circulating in France over a Three-Year Period : Detection of G 9 and P [ 6 ] Strains at Low Frequencies , 2000 .

[66]  K. Taniguchi,et al.  Survey on the distribution of the gene 4 alleles of human rotaviruses by polymerase chain reaction , 1994, Epidemiology and Infection.

[67]  H. Ushijima,et al.  Serotyping of human rotaviruses in the Tokyo area (1990–1993) by enzyme immununoassay with monoclonal antibodies and by reverse transcription and polymerase chain reaction amplification , 1994, Journal of medical virology.

[68]  R. Glass,et al.  Rotavirus G and P types circulating in Brazil: characterization by RT-PCR, probe hybridization, and sequence analysis , 2005, Archives of Virology.

[69]  H. Oshitani,et al.  Characterization of VP6 subgroup, VP7 and VP4 genotype of rotavirus strains in Lusaka, Zambia. , 1998, Annals of tropical paediatrics.

[70]  R. Chanock,et al.  Sequence of the fourth gene of human rotaviruses recovered from asymptomatic or symptomatic infections , 1988, Journal of virology.

[71]  P. Saravanan,et al.  Genomic diversity of group A rotavirus RNA from children with acute diarrhoea in Chennai, south India. , 2000, The Indian journal of medical research.

[72]  D. Sack,et al.  Evidence for natural reassortants of human rotaviruses belonging to different genogroups , 1990, Journal of virology.

[73]  M. Iturriza-Gómara,et al.  Molecular Epidemiology of Human Group A Rotavirus Infections in the United Kingdom between 1995 and 1998 , 2000, Journal of Clinical Microbiology.

[74]  R. Glass,et al.  Characterization of unusual G8 rotavirus strains isolated from Egyptian children , 1999, Archives of Virology.

[75]  P. Offit,et al.  Rotavirus isolate WI61 representing a presumptive new human serotype , 1987, Journal of clinical microbiology.

[76]  A. Linhares,et al.  Detection and characterization of rotavirus G and P types from children participating in a rotavirus vaccine trial in Belém, Brazil. , 2002, Memorias do Instituto Oswaldo Cruz.

[77]  R. Glass,et al.  Great Diversity of Group A Rotavirus Strains and High Prevalence of Mixed Rotavirus Infections in India , 2001, Journal of Clinical Microbiology.

[78]  R. Glass,et al.  Distribution of serotypes of human rotavirus in different populations , 1992, Journal of clinical microbiology.

[79]  D. Bernstein,et al.  Efficacy of Live, Attenuated Human Rotavirus Vaccine (89-12) in Infants , 1999 .

[80]  I. Mutz,et al.  Distribution of Rotavirus VP4 Genotypes and VP7 Serotypes among Nonhospitalized and Hospitalized Patients with Gastroenteritis and Patients with Nosocomially Acquired Gastroenteritis in Austria , 2000, Journal of Clinical Microbiology.

[81]  J. Leite,et al.  Rotavirus strain diversity in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil: characterization of VP4 and VP7 genotypes in hospitalized children. , 2002, Journal of tropical pediatrics.

[82]  C. Hill,et al.  VP4 and VP7 Genotyping of Rotavirus Samples Recovered from Infected Children in Ireland over a 3-Year Period , 1999, Journal of Clinical Microbiology.

[83]  P. Seth,et al.  Classification of rotavirus into G and P types with specimens from children with acute diarrhea in New Delhi, India , 1996, Journal of clinical microbiology.

[84]  M. Adah,et al.  Molecular Epidemiology of Rotaviruses in Nigeria: Detection of Unusual Strains with G2P[6] and G8P[1] Specificities , 2001, Journal of Clinical Microbiology.

[85]  K. Mise,et al.  Nucleotide sequence of VP4 and VP7 genes of a unique human rotavirus strain Mc35 with subgroup I and serotype 10 specificity. , 1993, Virology.

[86]  O. Nakagomi,et al.  Molecular characterization by RNA‐RNA hybridization of a serotype 8 human rotavirus with “super‐short” RNA electropherotype , 1990, Journal of medical virology.

[87]  Y. Hoshino,et al.  Surveillance of Rotavirus Strains in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, from 1997 to 1999 , 2003, Journal of Clinical Microbiology.

[88]  R. Ward,et al.  Genomic segment reassortment in rotaviruses and other reoviridae. , 1991, Advances in virus research.

[89]  J. Sears,et al.  Identification of human rotavirus serotype by hybridization to polymerase chain reaction-generated probes derived from a hyperdivergent region of the gene encoding outer capsid protein VP7 , 1990, Journal of virology.

[90]  P. Ghiringhelli,et al.  VP7 and VP4 Genotyping of Human Group A Rotavirus in Buenos Aires, Argentina , 2000, Journal of Clinical Microbiology.

[91]  M. Iturriza-Gómara,et al.  Rotavirus epidemiology and surveillance. , 2001, Novartis Foundation symposium.

[92]  G. Gerna,et al.  Human and bovine serotype G 8 rotaviruses may be derived by reassortment , 2005, Archives of Virology.

[93]  A. Steele,et al.  Geographic distribution of human rotavirus VP4 genotypes and VP7 serotypes in five South African regions , 1995, Journal of clinical microbiology.

[94]  H. Greenberg,et al.  Molecular basis of rotavirus virulence: role of gene segment 4 , 1986, Journal of virology.

[95]  A. Cascio,et al.  Distribution of VP7 serotypes and VP4 genotypes among rotavirus strains recovered from Italian children with diarrhea , 1997, Archives of Virology.

[96]  R. Glass,et al.  Surveillance of Rotavirus Strains in the United States: Identification of Unusual Strains , 2000, Journal of Clinical Microbiology.

[97]  A. Linhares,et al.  Rotavirus G and P types in children from Belém, northern Brazil, as determined by RT-PCR: occurrence of mixed P type infections. , 1998, Journal of diarrhoeal diseases research.

[98]  H. Greenberg,et al.  Direct serotyping of human rotavirus in stools by an enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay using serotype 1-, 2-, 3-, and 4-specific monoclonal antibodies to VP7. , 1987, The Journal of infectious diseases.

[99]  M. Iturriza-Gómara,et al.  Reassortment In Vivo: Driving Force for Diversity of Human Rotavirus Strains Isolated in the United Kingdom between 1995 and 1999 , 2001, Journal of Virology.

[100]  W. Karmaus,et al.  Prospective population‐based study on rotavirus disease in Germany , 2002, Acta paediatrica.

[101]  O. Nakagomi,et al.  RNA-RNA hybridization identifies a human rotavirus that is genetically related to feline rotavirus , 1989, Journal of virology.

[102]  G. Gerna,et al.  Identification of a new VP4 serotype of human rotaviruses. , 1994, Virology.

[103]  R. Glass,et al.  Genetic variability among serotype G6 human rotaviruses: Identification of a novel lineage isolated in Hungary , 2003, Journal of medical virology.

[104]  G. Palacios,et al.  Emergence of G9 P[6] Human Rotaviruses in Argentina: Phylogenetic Relationships among G9 Strains , 2001, Journal of Clinical Microbiology.

[105]  T. Gojobori,et al.  Intragenic recombinations in rotaviruses , 1998, FEBS letters.

[106]  F. Binka,et al.  Rotavirus G and P Genotypes in Rural Ghana , 2001, Journal of Clinical Microbiology.

[107]  M. Vilar,et al.  Clinical studies of a quadrivalent rotavirus vaccine in Venezuelan infants , 1990, Journal of clinical microbiology.

[108]  P. Offit,et al.  VP4 genotyping of human rotavirus in the United States , 1994, Journal of clinical microbiology.

[109]  N. Kobayashi,et al.  Detection of a Human Rotavirus with G12 and P[9] Specificity in Thailand , 2002, Journal of Clinical Microbiology.

[110]  R. Chanock,et al.  Genetic Relatedness Among Human Rotaviruses as Determined by RNA Hybridization , 1982, Infection and immunity.

[111]  G. Gerna,et al.  Serotype G6 human rotavirus sharing a conserved genetic constellation with natural reassortants between members of the bovine and AU-1 genogroups , 2005, Archives of Virology.

[112]  H. Greenberg,et al.  Serologic analysis of human rotavirus serotypes P1A and P2 by using monoclonal antibodies , 1993, Journal of clinical microbiology.

[113]  N. Kobayashi,et al.  Nucleotide sequence of VP4 and VP7 genes of human rotaviruses with subgroup I specificity and long RNA pattern: implication for new G serotype specificity , 1990, Journal of virology.

[114]  K. Mølbak,et al.  Characterization of incompletely typed rotavirus strains from Guinea-Bissau: identification of G8 and G9 types and a high frequency of mixed infections. , 2003, Virology.

[115]  R. Glass,et al.  Identification of group A rotavirus gene 4 types by polymerase chain reaction , 1992, Journal of clinical microbiology.

[116]  H. Ushijima,et al.  Distribution of rotavirus VP4 genotype and VP7 serotype among Chinese children , 1998, Acta paediatrica Japonica : Overseas edition.

[117]  N. Kobayashi,et al.  Analysis of human rotavirus strains prevailing in Bangladesh in relation to nationwide floods brought by the 1988 monsoon , 1991, Journal of clinical microbiology.

[118]  O. Nakagomi,et al.  Identification of rotavirus genogroups by RNA-RNA hybridization. , 1989, Molecular and cellular probes.

[119]  S. Okitsu,et al.  Epidemiological features of rotavirus infection among hospitalized children with gastroenteristis in Ho Chi Minh City, Vietnam , 2003, Journal of medical virology.

[120]  L. Maunula,et al.  Frequent Reassortments May Explain the Genetic Heterogeneity of Rotaviruses: Analysis of Finnish Rotavirus Strains , 2002, Journal of Virology.

[121]  V. Chizhikov,et al.  Rotavirus Strains Bearing Genotype G9 or P[9] Recovered from Brazilian Children with Diarrhea from 1997 to 1999 , 2001, Journal of Clinical Microbiology.

[122]  A. Theamboonlers,et al.  Predominant human rotavirus genotype G1P[8] infection in infants and children in Bangkok, Thailand. , 2001, Asian Pacific journal of allergy and immunology.

[123]  C. Hart,et al.  Detection and Characterization of Rotaviruses in Hospitalized Neonates in Blantyre, Malawi , 2002, Journal of Clinical Microbiology.

[124]  E. Palombo,et al.  Genetic and Antigenic Characterization of Rotavirus Serotype G9 Strains Isolated in Australia between 1997 and 2001 , 2003, Journal of Clinical Microbiology.

[125]  G. Kang,et al.  Distribution of rotavirus G and P types in north and south Indian children with acute diarrhoea in 1998-99. , 2001, Transactions of the Royal Society of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene.

[126]  O. Nakagomi,et al.  Molecular evidence for naturally occurring single VP7 gene substitution reassortant between human rotaviruses belonging to two different genogroups , 2005, Archives of Virology.

[127]  J. Flores,et al.  Identification of gene 4 alleles among human rotaviruses by polymerase chain reaction-derived probes. , 1990, Virology.

[128]  Mustafizur Rahman,et al.  Genetic Characterization of a Novel, Naturally Occurring Recombinant Human G6P[6] Rotavirus , 2003, Journal of Clinical Microbiology.

[129]  A. Villa,et al.  VP4 and VP7 Genotyping by Reverse Transcription-PCR of Human Rotavirus in Mexican Children with Acute Diarrhea , 2000, Journal of Clinical Microbiology.

[130]  A. Steele,et al.  Rotavirus strains circulating in Africa during 1996-1999: emergence of G9 strains and P[6] strains. , 2003, Vaccine.

[131]  K. Mise,et al.  New P serotype of group A human rotavirus closely related to that of a porcine rotavirus , 2000, Journal of medical virology.

[132]  G. Barnes,et al.  Report of the Australian rotavirus surveillance program 2002-03. , 2003, Communicable diseases intelligence quarterly report.

[133]  E. Mendelson,et al.  Distribution of both rotavirus VP4 genotypes and VP7 serotypes among hospitalized and nonhospitalized Israeli children , 1995, Journal of clinical microbiology.

[134]  P. Offit,et al.  Identification of the two rotavirus genes determining neutralization specificities , 1986, Journal of virology.

[135]  S. Ueda,et al.  A VP4 sequence highly conserved in human rotavirus strain AU-1 and feline rotavirus strain FRV-1. , 1992, The Journal of general virology.

[136]  越村 裕美 The relative frequencies of G serotypes of rotaviruses recovered from hospitalized children with diarrhea : A 10-year survey(1987-1996)in Japan with a review of globally collected data , 2001 .

[137]  H. Greenberg,et al.  Rotavirus serotype G5 associated with diarrhea in Brazilian children , 1994, Journal of clinical microbiology.

[138]  R. Glass,et al.  Polymerase chain reaction amplification and typing of rotavirus nucleic acid from stool specimens , 1990, Journal of clinical microbiology.

[139]  G. Barnes,et al.  Cultivation and characterization of rotavirus strains infecting newborn babies in Melbourne, Australia, from 1975 to 1979 , 1987, Journal of clinical microbiology.

[140]  R. Glass,et al.  The epidemiology and disease burden of rotavirus in Vietnam: sentinel surveillance at 6 hospitals. , 2001, The Journal of infectious diseases.

[141]  V. Gouvea,et al.  1998-1999 Rotavirus Seasons in Juiz de Fora, Minas Gerais, Brazil: Detection of an Unusual G3P[4] Epidemic Strain , 2002, Journal of Clinical Microbiology.

[142]  J. Leite,et al.  Rotavirus Genotypes P[4]G9, P[6]G9, and P[8]G9 in Hospitalized Children with Acute Gastroenteritis in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil , 2001, Journal of Clinical Microbiology.

[143]  V. Munford,et al.  Detection, Subgroup Specificity, and Genotype Diversity of Rotavirus Strains in Children with Acute Diarrhea in Paraguay , 2002, Journal of Clinical Microbiology.

[144]  H. Greenberg,et al.  Direct isolation in cell culture of human rotaviruses and their characterization into four serotypes , 1983, Journal of clinical microbiology.

[145]  M. Gorziglia,et al.  Determination of human rotavirus VP4 using serotype-specific cDNA probes , 2005, Archives of Virology.

[146]  R. Glass,et al.  Characterization of Serotype G9 Rotavirus Strains Isolated in the United States and India from 1993 to 2001 , 2003, Journal of Clinical Microbiology.

[147]  C. Hart,et al.  Expanding global distribution of rotavirus serotype G9: detection in Libya, Kenya, and Cuba. , 2001, Emerging infectious diseases.

[148]  B. Coulson VP4 and VP7 typing using monoclonal antibodies. , 1996, Archives of virology. Supplementum.

[149]  L. Maunula,et al.  Short sequences define genetic lineages: phylogenetic analysis of group A rotaviruses based on partial sequences of genome segments 4 and 9. , 1998, The Journal of general virology.

[150]  A. Mukoyama,et al.  A candidate for a new serotype of human rotavirus , 1985, Journal of virology.

[151]  G. Barnes,et al.  Epidemiological Patterns of Rotaviruses Causing Severe Gastroenteritis in Young Children throughout Australia from 1993 to 1996 , 2001, Journal of Clinical Microbiology.

[152]  C. Kirkwood,et al.  Report of the Australian Rotavirus Surveillance Program, 2001/2002. , 2002, Communicable diseases intelligence quarterly report.

[153]  G. Kang,et al.  Molecular epidemiology of rotaviral infection in South Indian children with acute diarrhea from 1995–1996 to 1998–1999 , 2002, Journal of medical virology.

[154]  R. Glass,et al.  Unexpected Detection of Animal VP7 Genes among Common Rotavirus Strains Isolated from Children in Mexico , 2003, Journal of Clinical Microbiology.

[155]  O. Nakagomi,et al.  Occurrence of changes in human rotavirus serotypes with concurrent changes in genomic RNA electropherotypes , 1988, Journal of clinical microbiology.

[156]  J. Buesa,et al.  VP7 and VP4 genotypes among rotavirus strains recovered from children with gastroenteritis over a 3-year period in Valencia, Spain , 2000, European Journal of Epidemiology.

[157]  R. Glass,et al.  Detection and Characterization of Novel Rotavirus Strains in the United States , 1998, Journal of Clinical Microbiology.