Proposal for management and alkalinity transformation of bauxite residue in China

Bauxite residue is a hazardous solid waste produced during the production of alumina. Its high alkalinity is a potential threat to the environment which may disrupt the surrounding ecological balance of its disposal areas. China is one of the major global producers of alumina and bauxite residue, but differences in alkalinity and associated chemistry exist between residues from China and those from other countries. A detailed understanding of the chemistry of bauxite residue remains the key to improving its management, both in terms of minimizing environmental impacts and reducing its alkaline properties. The nature of bauxite residue and the chemistry required for its transformation are still poorly understood. This review focuses on various transformation processes generated from the Bayer process, sintering process, and combined Bayer-sintering process in China. Problems associated with transformation mechanisms, technical methods, and relative merits of these technologies are reviewed, while current knowledge gaps and research priorities are recommended. Future research should focus on transformation chemistry and its associated mechanisms and for the development of a clear and economic process to reduce alkalinity and soda in bauxite residue.

[1]  H. Midgley,et al.  The carbonation of high alumina cement, Part II , 1985 .

[2]  S. Couperthwaite,et al.  Minimization of Bauxite Residue Neutralization Products Using Nanofiltered Seawater , 2014 .

[3]  A. K. Ray,et al.  Proposal for resources, utilization and processes of red mud in India — A review , 2013 .

[4]  Wang Zh.  Study on the Dealkalization Technics of Bayer-process Red Mud with CO_2 by Carbonation , 2013 .

[5]  M. Clark,et al.  Comparison of several different neutralisations to a bauxite refinery residue: Potential effectiveness environmental ameliorants , 2015 .

[6]  Sharif Jahanshahi,et al.  Experimental and simulative study on phase transformation in Bayer red mud soda-lime roasting system and recovery of Al, Na and Fe , 2012 .

[7]  Xiao-lin Pan,et al.  Reduction of alkalinity in bauxite residue during Bayer digestion in high-ferrite diasporic bauxite , 2015 .

[8]  P. Kopittke,et al.  Fresh water leaching of alkaline bauxite residue after sea water neutralization. , 2009, Journal of environmental quality.

[9]  C. Liao,et al.  Quantitative X-ray Diffraction (QXRD) analysis for revealing thermal transformations of red mud. , 2015, Chemosphere.

[10]  Douglas I. Stewart,et al.  Leaching of copper and nickel in soil-water systems contaminated by bauxite residue (red mud) from Ajka, Hungary: the importance of soil organic matter , 2015, Environmental Science and Pollution Research.

[11]  Dou Zhi-he.  A Study on Absorption of Low-Concentration SO_2 by Bayer Red Mud , 2010 .

[12]  S. Xue,et al.  Novel predictors of soil genesis following natural weathering processes of bauxite residues , 2016, Environmental Science and Pollution Research.

[13]  Z. Rengel,et al.  Deep banding improves residual effectiveness of manganese fertiliser for bauxite residue revegetation , 2003 .

[14]  B. Whittington.  The chemistry of CaO and Ca(OH)2 relating to the Bayer process , 1996 .

[15]  Xiao-bo Zhu,et al.  An active dealkalization of red mud with roasting and water leaching. , 2015, Journal of hazardous materials.

[16]  N. Banning,et al.  Amendment of bauxite residue sand can alleviate constraints to plant establishment and nutrient cycling capacity in a water-limited environment , 2014 .

[17]  T. Santini,et al.  In situ neutralisation of uncarbonated bauxite residue mud by cross layer leaching with carbonated bauxite residue mud. , 2011, Journal of hazardous materials.

[18]  J. Duchesne,et al.  Long-term neutralisation potential of red mud bauxite with brine amendment for the neutralisation of acidic mine tailings , 2007 .

[19]  N. Menzies,et al.  Seawater neutralization of alkaline bauxite residue and implications for revegetation. , 2004, Journal of environmental quality.

[20]  S. Xue,et al.  A review of the characterization and revegetation of bauxite residues (Red mud) , 2015, Environmental Science and Pollution Research.

[21]  Ravi Naidu,et al.  Hidden values in bauxite residue (red mud): recovery of metals. , 2014, Waste management.

[22]  Yingqun Ma,et al.  Red mud as a carbon sink: variability, affecting factors and environmental significance. , 2013, Journal of hazardous materials.

[23]  Markus Gräfe,et al.  Bauxite residue issues: IV. Old obstacles and new pathways for in situ residue bioremediation , 2011 .

[24]  Stuart Lyon,et al.  Mechanism of Friedel's salt formation in cements rich in tri-calcium aluminate , 1996 .

[25]  She Yuan-guan.  Current status and development trend of aluminum industry in world and strategy suggestions in China under background of sustainable development , 2012 .

[26]  Peter Smith,et al.  The processing of high silica bauxites ― Review of existing and potential processes , 2009 .

[27]  V. Mugica-Álvarez,et al.  Phytoremediation of Mine Tailings Using Lolium Multiflorum , 2022 .

[28]  J. Wong,et al.  Sewage sludge as organic ameliorant for revegetation of fine bauxite refining residue , 1994 .

[29]  Hao Wu,et al.  Effects of iron-aluminium oxides and organic carbon on aggregate stability of bauxite residues , 2016, Environmental Science and Pollution Research.

[30]  Rao Pingping.  ANALYSIS ON BASIC CHARACTERISTICS OF BAYER'S DRY RED MUD AND THE OPERATION FEATURE OF THE YARD , 2010 .

[31]  V. Batra,et al.  Modification of red mud by acid treatment and its application for CO removal. , 2012, Journal of hazardous materials.

[32]  M. Hamdy,et al.  Bacterial amelioration of bauxite residue waste of industrial alumina plants , 2001, Journal of Industrial Microbiology and Biotechnology.

[33]  J. B. Mcmonagle,et al.  Chemistry of bauxite residue neutralisation and aspects to implementation , 2013 .

[34]  K. Fukuda,et al.  Interactive effects of various salt and alkali stresses on growth, organic solutes, and cation accumulation in a halophyte Spartina alterniflora (Poaceae) , 2010 .

[35]  B. Whittington,et al.  The effect of reaction conditions on the composition of desilication product (DSP) formed under simulated Bayer conditions , 1998 .

[36]  G. Corder,et al.  Life cycle assessment of seawater neutralised red mud for treatment of acid mine drainage , 2008 .

[37]  Hongxu Li,et al.  Metallurgical process for valuable elements recovery from red mud—A review , 2015 .

[38]  Kun Yan,et al.  Environmental assessment, management and utilization of red mud in China , 2014 .

[39]  Zhang Jin-ping.  Novel Process for Sodium Elimination from Red Mud of Alumina Production , 2010 .

[40]  K. Byrne,et al.  Indicators of soil formation in restored bauxite residues , 2013 .

[41]  R. Creelman,et al.  Chemistry of Seawater Neutralization of Bauxite Refinery Residues (Red Mud) , 2004 .

[42]  Yiannis Pontikes,et al.  Bauxite residue in cement and cementitious applications: Current status and a possible way forward , 2013 .

[43]  T. Santini,et al.  Microbially-driven strategies for bioremediation of bauxite residue. , 2015, Journal of hazardous materials.

[44]  S. Couperthwaite,et al.  Implication of calcium hydroxide in the seawater neutralisation of bauxite refinery liquors , 2012 .

[45]  G. Power,et al.  Bauxite residue issues: II. options for residue utilization , 2011 .

[46]  B. Whittington,et al.  The chemistry of tricalcium aluminate hexahydrate relating to the Bayer industry , 1996 .

[47]  Liu Ye-xiang.  Study and application of intensified sintering processfor alumina production , 2004 .

[48]  D.-L. Wang,et al.  Effects of buffer capacity on growth, photosynthesis, and solute accumulation of a glycophyte (wheat) and a halophyte (Chloris virgata) , 2009, Photosynthetica.

[49]  S. Xue,et al.  Effects of silicon (Si) on arsenic (As) accumulation and speciation in rice (Oryza sativa L.) genotypes with different radial oxygen loss (ROL). , 2015, Chemosphere.

[50]  Sun Yun-d.  Research and Implementation on Storage Process of"Half-drying Mixed Red Mud" , 2009 .

[51]  Jim A. Harris,et al.  Microbial Community Composition in a Rehabilitated Bauxite Residue Disposal Area: A Case Study for Improving Microbial Community Composition , 2014 .

[52]  Davey L. Jones,et al.  Development of Microbial Diversity and Functional Potential in Bauxite Residue Sand under Rehabilitation , 2011 .

[53]  S. Palmer,et al.  Minimising reversion, using seawater and magnesium chloride, caused by the dissolution of tricalcium aluminate hexahydrate. , 2011, Journal of colloid and interface science.

[54]  Fu Gao-feng.  Study on Digestion of Chinese Middle/Low Grade Bauxite in Lime Bayer Process , 2005 .

[55]  Chang Xiao-yu.  Chemistry and mineralogy of red mud and its utilization in Zhengzhou Alumina Refinery , 2007 .

[56]  R. J. Haynes,et al.  Influence of organic waste and residue mud additions on chemical, physical and microbial properties of bauxite residue sand , 2011, Environmental science and pollution research international.

[57]  P. Cotter,et al.  Bacterial communities established in bauxite residues with different restoration histories. , 2013, Environmental science & technology.

[58]  Nie Jinxia.  Adsorption of SO_2 from Flue Gas with Wastewater in Red Mud , 2007 .

[59]  Bacterial diversity of extremely alkaline bauxite residue site of alumina industrial plant using culturable bacteria and residue 16S rRNA gene clones , 2014, Extremophiles.

[60]  M. Clark,et al.  Alkalinity conversion of bauxite refinery residues by neutralization. , 2010, Journal of hazardous materials.

[61]  Hamdani,et al.  Freshwater , 2019, Global Environment Outlook – GEO-6: Healthy Planet, Healthy People.

[62]  R. Maier,et al.  Phytoremediation of mine tailings in temperate and arid environments , 2008 .

[63]  Qi-yuan Chen,et al.  Surface charge properties of red mud particles generated from Chinese diaspore bauxite , 2008 .

[64]  Tom Van Gerven,et al.  Leaching of rare earths from bauxite residue (red mud) , 2015 .

[65]  Peihong Zhang,et al.  Analysis of the overall energy intensity of alumina refinery process using unit process energy intensity and product ratio method , 2006 .

[66]  M. Balakrishnan,et al.  Carbonised red mud--a new water treatment product made from a waste material. , 2012, Journal of environmental management.