Sex differences in impulsivity: a meta-analysis.

Men are overrepresented in socially problematic behaviors, such as aggression and criminal behavior, which have been linked to impulsivity. Our review of impulsivity is organized around the tripartite theoretical distinction between reward hypersensitivity, punishment hyposensitivity, and inadequate effortful control. Drawing on evolutionary, criminological, developmental, and personality theories, we predicted that sex differences would be most pronounced in risky activities with men demonstrating greater sensation seeking, greater reward sensitivity, and lower punishment sensitivity. We predicted a small female advantage in effortful control. We analyzed 741 effect sizes from 277 studies, including psychometric and behavioral measures. Women were consistently more punishment sensitive (d = -0.33), but men did not show greater reward sensitivity (d = 0.01). Men showed significantly higher sensation seeking on questionnaire measures (d = 0.41) and on a behavioral risk-taking task (d = 0.36). Questionnaire measures of deficits in effortful control showed a very modest effect size in the male direction (d = 0.08). Sex differences were not found on delay discounting or executive function tasks. The results indicate a stronger sex difference in motivational rather than effortful or executive forms of behavior control. Specifically, they support evolutionary and biological theories of risk taking predicated on sex differences in punishment sensitivity. A clearer understanding of sex differences in impulsivity depends upon recognizing important distinctions between sensation seeking and impulsivity, between executive and effortful forms of control, and between impulsivity as a deficit and as a trait.

[1]  John A Updegraff,et al.  Biobehavioral responses to stress in females: tend-and-befriend, not fight-or-flight. , 2000, Psychological review.

[2]  T. Moffitt,et al.  Measuring impulsivity and examining its relationship to delinquency. , 1994, Journal of abnormal psychology.

[3]  W. Bickel,et al.  Heroin addicts have higher discount rates for delayed rewards than non-drug-using controls. , 1999, Journal of experimental psychology. General.

[4]  Alex R. Piquero,et al.  THE RELIABILITY AND VALIDITY OF GRASMICK et al.'s SELF‐CONTROL SCALE: A COMMENT ON LONGSHORE et al.* , 1998 .

[5]  F. Moeller,et al.  Impulsivity and history of drug dependence. , 1998, Drug and alcohol dependence.

[6]  R. McFatter Emotional intensity: Some components and their relations to extra version and neuroticism , 1998 .

[7]  M. Zuckerman,et al.  Sensation seeking, Eysenck's personality dimensions and reinforcement sensitivity in concept formation☆ , 1990 .

[8]  M. Johnson,et al.  Impulsivity: A multidimensional concept with developmental aspects , 1980, Journal of abnormal child psychology.

[9]  Janet B W Williams,et al.  Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders , 2013 .

[10]  E. Aidman,et al.  Personality Dispositions in the Prediction of Posttraumatic Stress Reactions , 2006, Psychological reports.

[11]  J. Lerner,et al.  inuences on judgement and choice , 2000 .

[12]  P. Heaven Venturesomeness, impulsiveness, and Eysenck's personality dimensions: a study among Australian adolescents. , 1991, The Journal of genetic psychology.

[13]  P. Heaven Orientation to authority and its relation to impulsiveness , 1989 .

[14]  J. John Mann,et al.  Correlates of trait impulsiveness in performance measures and neuropsychological tests , 2005, Psychiatry Research.

[15]  Donald A Hantula,et al.  Methodological considerations in the study of delay discounting in intertemporal choice: A comparison of tasks and modes , 2008, Behavior research methods.

[16]  J. Nietfeld,et al.  Examining the self-regulation of impulsive and reflective response styles on academic tasks , 2003 .

[17]  R. Baumeister,et al.  Self-regulation and depletion of limited resources: does self-control resemble a muscle? , 2000, Psychological bulletin.

[18]  Antoine Bechara,et al.  Negative emotion-driven impulsivity predicts substance dependence problems. , 2007, Drug and alcohol dependence.

[19]  John L. Bradshaw,et al.  Associations between laboratory measures of executive inhibitory control and self-reported impulsivity , 2006 .

[20]  Judith A. Stein,et al.  SELF-CONTROL IN A CRIMINAL SAMPLE: AN EXAMINATION OF CONSTRUCT VALIDITY* , 1996 .

[21]  John M. Zelenski,et al.  Susceptibility to affect: a comparison of three personality taxonomies. , 1999, Journal of personality.

[22]  Edward L. Thorndike,et al.  The measurement of an individual. , 1904 .

[23]  A. Morgan-Lopez,et al.  College drinking behaviors: mediational links between parenting styles, impulse control, and alcohol-related outcomes. , 2006, Psychology of addictive behaviors : journal of the Society of Psychologists in Addictive Behaviors.

[24]  K. Matthews,et al.  Aggression, Impulsivity, and Central Nervous System Serotonergic Responsivity in a Nonpatient Sample , 1998, Neuropsychopharmacology.

[25]  Richard Milich,et al.  Reflections on impulsivity: An empirical investigation of impulsivity as a construct. , 1984 .

[26]  Elso Arruda,et al.  The prefrontal cortex: anatomy, physiology and neuropsychology of the frontal lobo , 1990 .

[27]  H. Caci,et al.  Psychometric properties of the French versions of the BIS/BAS scales and the SPSRQ , 2007 .

[28]  Dan J Stein,et al.  Toward a Global View of Alcohol, Tobacco, Cannabis, and Cocaine Use: Findings from the WHO World Mental Health Surveys , 2008, PLoS medicine.

[29]  R. Reitan Validity of the Trail Making Test as an Indicator of Organic Brain Damage , 1958 .

[30]  S. Eysenck Impulsiveness and antisocial behaviour in children , 1981 .

[31]  J. Archer Testosterone and human aggression: an evaluation of the challenge hypothesis , 2006, Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews.

[32]  S. Puttonen,et al.  Association of impulsivity with sleep duration and insomnia in an employee population , 2007 .

[33]  L. Claes,et al.  Gray's Reinforcement Sensitivity Theory as a framework for research on personality-psychopathology associations. , 2009, Clinical psychology review.

[34]  N. Kalin,et al.  Emotion, plasticity, context, and regulation: perspectives from affective neuroscience. , 2000, Psychological bulletin.

[35]  Julian P T Higgins,et al.  Commentary: Heterogeneity in meta-analysis should be expected and appropriately quantified. , 2008, International journal of epidemiology.

[36]  J. Sobral,et al.  Personality and antisocial behaviour: study of temperamental dimensions , 2001 .

[37]  Matthew W. Johnson,et al.  Moderate drug use and delay discounting: a comparison of heavy, light, and never smokers. , 2007, Experimental and clinical psychopharmacology.

[38]  R. Torrubia,et al.  Sensation seeking and antisocial behaviour in a student sample , 1985 .

[39]  C. Davis,et al.  Personality traits associated with decision-making deficits , 2007 .

[40]  M. Zuckerman,et al.  A comparison of three structural models for personality: the big three , 1993 .

[41]  Charles R. Tittle,et al.  Gender, Age, and Crime/Deviance: A Challenge to Self-Control Theory , 2003 .

[42]  Eamonn Ferguson,et al.  An evaluation of the relationship between Gray’s revised RST and Eysenck’s PEN: Distinguishing BIS and FFFS in Carver and White’s BIS/BAS scales , 2008 .

[43]  John T. Mitchell,et al.  An analysis of reinforcement sensitivity theory and the five‐factor model , 2007 .

[44]  R. Davidson,et al.  Dysfunction in the neural circuitry of emotion regulation--a possible prelude to violence. , 2000, Science.

[45]  Klaus P. Ebmeier,et al.  The structure of Cloninger's Tridimensional Personality Questionnaire in a British sample , 2004 .

[46]  T. Hare,et al.  The Adolescent Brain , 2008, Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences.

[47]  Margo Wilson,et al.  Competitiveness, risk taking, and violence: the young male syndrome , 1985, Ethology and Sociobiology.

[48]  Judith A. Hall Nonverbal sex differences : communication accuracy and expressive style , 1984 .

[49]  T. Petros,et al.  Effect of caffeine, impulsivity, and gender on the components of text processing and recall. , 1996 .

[50]  S. Eysenck,et al.  A cross-cultural study of personality: Iranian and English children , 1994 .

[51]  C. Dalenberg,et al.  Dissociation and Physical Abuse as Predictors of Bulimic Symptomatology and Impulse Dysregulation , 1993, Sexual Abuse and Eating Disorders.

[52]  D. Kipper,et al.  The Revised Spontaneity Assessment Inventory (SAI-R) : Relationship to goal orientation, motivation, perceived self-efficacy, and self-esteem , 2008 .

[53]  J. King,et al.  Aping humans: age and sex effects in chimpanzee (Pan troglodytes) and human (Homo sapiens) personality. , 2008, Journal of comparative psychology.

[54]  E. Baca-García,et al.  A pilot study on differences in aggression in New York City and Madrid, Spain, and their possible impact on suicidal behavior. , 2006, The Journal of clinical psychiatry.

[55]  Charles S. Carver,et al.  Impulse and Constraint: Perspectives From Personality Psychology, Convergence With Theory in Other Areas, and Potential for Integration , 2005, Personality and social psychology review : an official journal of the Society for Personality and Social Psychology, Inc.

[56]  K. Mogg,et al.  Trait anxiety, defensiveness and selective processing of threat: An investigation using two measures of attentional bias. , 2000 .

[57]  Patrice Boyer,et al.  Cross-cultural study of the Impulsiveness-Venturesomeness-Empathy Questionnaire (IVE-7). , 2003, Comprehensive psychiatry.

[58]  G. Logan,et al.  Impulsivity and Inhibitory Control , 1997 .

[59]  I. Johnsrude,et al.  Intact preference conditioning in acute intoxication despite deficient declarative knowledge and working memory. , 2007, Alcoholism, clinical and experimental research.

[60]  Andreu Vigil-Colet,et al.  How Impulsivity is Related to Intelligence and Academic Achievement , 2005, The Spanish Journal of Psychology.

[61]  D. Bjorklund,et al.  Parental investment theory and gender differences in the evolution of inhibition mechanisms. , 1996, Psychological bulletin.

[62]  P. Laake,et al.  Greater intrasex phenotype variability in males than in females is a fundamental aspect of the gender differences in humans. , 2009, Developmental psychobiology.

[63]  A. Fischer Gender and emotion: Social psychological perspectives , 2000 .

[64]  P. F. Buckley Borderline Personality Disorder, Impulsivity, and the Orbitofrontal Cortex , 2007 .

[65]  Patrick Ian Armstrong,et al.  Men and things, women and people: a meta-analysis of sex differences in interests. , 2009, Psychological bulletin.

[66]  H. Eysenck,et al.  Impulsiveness and Venturesomeness: Their Position in a Dimensional System of Personality Description , 1978, Psychological reports.

[67]  M. Fillmore,et al.  Increased sensitivity to the disinhibiting effects of alcohol in binge drinkers. , 2007, Psychology of addictive behaviors : journal of the Society of Psychologists in Addictive Behaviors.

[68]  B. Gargallo Basic variables in reflection-impulsivity: A training programme to increase reflectivity , 1993 .

[69]  C. Ávila,et al.  Impulsivity and total response speed to a personality questionnaire , 1993 .

[70]  J. Archer Sex Differences in Aggression in Real-World Settings: A Meta-Analytic Review , 2004 .

[71]  Stephen R. McDaniel,et al.  The relationship of impulsive sensation seeking and gender to interest and participation in gambling activities , 2003 .

[72]  C. Ávila,et al.  The measurement of individual differences in Behavioural Inhibition and Behavioural Activation systems: a comparison of personality scales , 2003 .

[73]  R. Kessler,et al.  The prevalence and correlates of DSM-IV intermittent explosive disorder in the National Comorbidity Survey Replication. , 2006, Archives of general psychiatry.

[74]  Kris N Kirby,et al.  Heroin and cocaine abusers have higher discount rates for delayed rewards than alcoholics or non-drug-using controls. , 2004, Addiction.

[75]  M. Zuckerman Dimensions of Sensation Seeking. , 1971 .

[76]  Emmanuelle Vignoli,et al.  Intensity seeking and novelty seeking: Their relationship to adolescent risk behavior and occupational interests , 2007 .

[77]  B. Malle,et al.  Impulsivity, reflection, and questionnaire response latencies: No evidence for a broad impulsivity trait , 1991 .

[78]  Andrea Campbell Sex differences in direct aggression: What are the psychological mediators? , 2006 .

[79]  C. Anderson,et al.  Gender differences in aggression as a function of provocation: a meta-analysis. , 1996, Psychological bulletin.

[80]  David H. Barlow,et al.  Anxiety and its disorders : the nature and treatment of anxiety and panic , 1988 .

[81]  P. Costa,et al.  The revised NEO personality inventory (NEO-PI-R) , 2008 .

[82]  Bernice Porjesz,et al.  Reduced frontal lobe activity in subjects with high impulsivity and alcoholism. , 2007, Alcoholism, clinical and experimental research.

[83]  Andreu Vigil-Colet,et al.  The Relationships between Functional and Dysfunctional Impulsivity and Aggression across Different Samples , 2008, The Spanish Journal of Psychology.

[84]  M. McCloskey,et al.  IQ and nonplanning impulsivity are independently associated with delay discounting in middle-aged adults , 2007 .

[85]  C. Neighbors,et al.  Predicting risky and angry driving as a function of gender. , 2007, Accident; analysis and prevention.

[86]  Melanie C. Page,et al.  Emotional arousal and gender differences in aggression: A meta‐analysis , 2002 .

[87]  Joseph Glicksohn,et al.  The construct of impulsivity revisited , 2007 .

[88]  Andrea Fossati,et al.  Predicting borderline and antisocial personality disorder features in nonclinical subjects using measures of impulsivity and aggressiveness , 2004, Psychiatry Research.

[89]  K. Schweizer Does impulsivity influence performance in reasoning , 2002 .

[90]  M. Voracek,et al.  Why can't a man be more like a woman? Sex differences in Big Five personality traits across 55 cultures. , 2008, Journal of personality and social psychology.

[91]  G. Band,et al.  Inhibitory motor control in stop paradigms: review and reinterpretation of neural mechanisms. , 1999, Acta psychologica.

[92]  Paul Smith,et al.  Driving aggression in forensic and non-forensic populations: relationships to self-reported levels of aggression, anger and impulsivity. , 2006, British journal of psychology.

[93]  J. Nigg,et al.  Is ADHD a disinhibitory disorder? , 2001, Psychological bulletin.

[94]  R. Colom,et al.  The Assessment of Spatial Ability with a Single Computerized Test , 2003 .

[95]  Velmer S. Burton,et al.  Gender, Self-Control, and Crime , 1998 .

[96]  M. L. Kelly,et al.  The Adolescent Behavior Checklist: development and initial psychometric properties of a self-report measure for adolescents with ADHD. , 1997, Journal of clinical child psychology.

[97]  S. Dickman,et al.  PERSONALITY PROCESSES AND INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES Functional and Dysfunctional Impulsivity: Personality and Cognitive Correlates , 1990 .

[98]  Comparison of impulsiveness, venturesomeness and empathy (I7) structure in English and Spanish samples: Analysis of different structural equation models , 2007 .

[99]  Robert L. Bare Psychopathic Traits in College Students: Electrodermal Reactivity, Anxiety, Disinhibition, Risk-Taking, and Executive Functioning , 2005 .

[100]  Creativity styles and personality characteristics , 2001 .

[101]  T. Scruggs Advances in Learning and Behavioral Disabilities , 1992 .

[102]  R. Silverman,et al.  Self-control and social control : An examination of gender, ethnicity, class and delinquency , 2000 .

[103]  K. Kirby,et al.  Impatience and grades: Delay-discount rates correlate negatively with college GPA , 2002 .

[104]  Gray's model and psychopathy: BIS but not BAS differentiates primary from secondary psychopathy in noninstitutionalized young adults , 2007 .

[105]  M. Pompili,et al.  Gender effects among undergraduates relating to suicide risk, impulsivity, aggression and self-efficacy , 2007 .

[106]  L. Quilty,et al.  The assessment of behavioural activation––the relationship between impulsivity and behavioural activation , 2004 .

[107]  J. Overholser,et al.  Internalized and Externalized Anger in Adolescent Suicide Attempters , 1994 .

[108]  P. Chandler,et al.  The Eysenckian personality structure: a 'Giant Three' or 'Big Five' model in Hong Kong? , 1998 .

[109]  Scott O Lilienfeld,et al.  Sex differences in psychopathy and antisocial personality disorder. A review and integration. , 2002, Clinical psychology review.

[110]  Jeanette Taylor Substance Use Disorders and Cluster B Personality Disorders: Physiological, Cognitive, and Environmental Correlates in a College Sample , 2005, The American journal of drug and alcohol abuse.

[111]  P. R. Pearson,et al.  Age norms for impulsiveness, venturesomeness and empathy in adults , 1985 .

[112]  M. Zuckerman,et al.  Disinhibitory sensation seeking, personality and gonadal hormones , 1980 .

[113]  Gender, anxiety and self-image , 1998 .

[114]  Martin R. Yeomans,et al.  Relationships between functional and dysfunctional impulsivity, delay discounting and cognitive distortions , 2007 .

[115]  C. Harris,et al.  Positive and negative schizotypy in a student sample: neurocognitive and clinical correlates , 2002, Schizophrenia Research.

[116]  Susan D. Voyer,et al.  Magnitude of sex differences in spatial abilities: a meta-analysis and consideration of critical variables. , 1995, Psychological bulletin.

[117]  E. Deschenes,et al.  Violence and Gangs: Gender Differences in Perceptions and Behavior , 1999 .

[118]  E. C. Ritchie,et al.  Gender Differences , 1981, Language in Society.

[119]  T. Robbins,et al.  Neurobehavioral mechanisms of impulsivity: Fronto-striatal systems and functional neurochemistry , 2008, Pharmacology Biochemistry and Behavior.

[120]  L. Smillie What is reinforcement sensitivity? Neuroscience paradigms for approach‐avoidance process theories of personality , 2008 .

[121]  J. Glicksohn,et al.  Interacting personality traits? Smoking as a test case , 2007 .

[122]  Mikel L. Hartman,et al.  Differences in and correlates of sensation seeking in male and female athletes and nonathletes , 1992 .

[123]  D. Derryberry,et al.  Reactive and effortful processes in the organization of temperament , 1997, Development and Psychopathology.

[124]  H J Eysenck,et al.  Sensation seeking in England and America: cross-cultural, age, and sex comparisons. , 1978, Journal of consulting and clinical psychology.

[125]  R. Baumeister,et al.  High self-control predicts good adjustment, less pathology, better grades, and interpersonal success. , 2004, Journal of personality.

[126]  H. Ko,et al.  Impulsivity and expectancy in risk for alcohol use: comparing male and female college students in Taiwan. , 2007, Addictive behaviors.

[127]  M. Rothbart,et al.  Temperament, Development, and Personality , 2007 .

[128]  S. Karabenick,et al.  Academic Delay of Gratification , 2009 .

[129]  D. A. Worcester,et al.  The Porteus Maze Test and Intelligence. , 1951 .

[130]  J. Cheong,et al.  Effect of religion and religiosity on alcohol use in a college student sample. , 1998, Drug and alcohol dependence.

[131]  J. Richards,et al.  Delay discounting and probability discounting as related to cigarette smoking status in adults , 2004, Behavioural Processes.

[132]  A. Piquero,et al.  Control Ratios and Defiant Acts of Deviance: Assessing Additive and Conditional Effects with Constraints and Impulsivity , 2003 .

[133]  K. Carey,et al.  Lability and Impulsivity Synergistically Increase Risk for Alcohol‐Related Problems , 2004, The American journal of drug and alcohol abuse.

[134]  B. Reynolds Impulsivity and friends who smoke as predictors of adolescent smoking. , 2003 .

[135]  N. Petry,et al.  Effects of gender and family history of alcohol dependence on a behavioral task of impulsivity in healthy subjects. , 2002, Journal of studies on alcohol.

[136]  Gregory L. Stuart,et al.  Evaluation of a behavioral measure of risk taking: the Balloon Analogue Risk Task (BART). , 2002, Journal of experimental psychology. Applied.

[137]  Tomasz Zaleskiewicz,et al.  Beyond risk seeking and risk aversion: personality and the dual nature of economic risk taking , 2001 .

[138]  Jaap J. A. Denissen,et al.  The evolutionary genetics of personality , 2007 .

[139]  B. Reynolds,et al.  Dimensions of impulsive behavior in adolescents: laboratory behavioral assessments. , 2008, Experimental and clinical psychopharmacology.

[140]  C. Lennings The Schalling Sensation Seeking and Impulsivity Scales: Their Relationship to Time Perspective and Time Awareness, a Preliminary Report , 1991, Psychological reports.

[141]  J. Yardley,et al.  Moderating Effect of Gender on the Relationship Between Sensation Seeking-Impulsivity and Substance Use in Adolescents , 2002 .

[142]  J. Richards,et al.  Acute-alcohol effects on the Experiential Discounting Task (EDT) and a question-based measure of delay discounting , 2006, Pharmacology Biochemistry and Behavior.

[143]  C. Reeve Functional Impulsivity and Speeded Ability Test Performance , 2007 .

[144]  Lia Nower,et al.  The relationship of impulsivity, sensation seeking, coping, and substance use in youth gamblers. , 2004, Psychology of addictive behaviors : journal of the Society of Psychologists in Addictive Behaviors.

[145]  G. Waller,et al.  Association of anger with bulimic and other impulsive behaviours among non-clinical women and men , 2004 .

[146]  H. de Wit,et al.  Delay or probability discounting in a model of impulsive behavior: effect of alcohol. , 1999, Journal of the experimental analysis of behavior.

[147]  Matthew W. Johnson,et al.  Delay discounting in current and never-before cigarette smokers: similarities and differences across commodity, sign, and magnitude. , 2003, Journal of abnormal psychology.

[148]  N. Andreasen,et al.  Morphology of the ventral frontal cortex: relationship to femininity and social cognition. , 2008, Cerebral cortex.

[149]  C. Colder,et al.  The UPPS Impulsive Behavior Scale: Factor structure and associations with college drinking , 2007 .

[150]  Jonathan Gershon,et al.  A Meta-Analytic Review of Gender Differences in ADHD , 2002, Journal of attention disorders.

[151]  Benjamin M. Robinson,et al.  Delay discounting in schizophrenia , 2007, Cognitive neuropsychiatry.

[152]  E. Mullet,et al.  Factor Structure of the Borderline Personality Inventory in Adolescents , 2004 .

[153]  K. Carey,et al.  An affective and cognitive model of marijuana and alcohol problems. , 2006, Addictive behaviors.

[154]  J. E. Mazur An adjusting procedure for studying delayed reinforcement. , 1987 .

[155]  N. Makris,et al.  Normal sexual dimorphism of the adult human brain assessed by in vivo magnetic resonance imaging. , 2001, Cerebral cortex.

[156]  P. Giancola,et al.  Differential effects of past-year stimulant and sedative drug use on alcohol-related aggression. , 2005, Addictive behaviors.

[157]  R. Gomez,et al.  Convergent, discriminant and concurrent validities of measures of the behavioural approach and behavioural inhibition systems: confirmatory factor analytic approach , 2004 .

[158]  T. Robbins,et al.  Stop signal response inhibition is not modulated by tryptophan depletion or the serotonin transporter polymorphism in healthy volunteers: implications for the 5-HT theory of impulsivity , 2005, Psychopharmacology.

[159]  R. Tremblay,et al.  Personality traits as correlates of suicide attempts and suicidal ideation in young adults , 2005, Psychological Medicine.

[160]  C J Cherpitel,et al.  Alcohol, injury, and risk-taking behavior: data from a national sample. , 1993, Alcoholism, clinical and experimental research.

[161]  Esther Calvete,et al.  Gender Differences in Cognitive Vulnerability to Depression and Behavior Problems in Adolescents , 2005, Journal of abnormal child psychology.

[162]  Mark W. Lipsey,et al.  Practical Meta-Analysis , 2000 .

[163]  Margo Wilson,et al.  Are Juvenile Offenders Extreme Future Discounters? , 2006, Psychological science.

[164]  D. Derryberry,et al.  Development of individual differences in temperament , 1981 .

[165]  I. Sigfusdottir,et al.  The role of violent cognition in the relationship between personality and the involvement in violent films and computer games , 2006 .

[166]  David T. Lykken,et al.  The Antisocial Personalities , 1995 .

[167]  R. Starrett The conceptual commonality between impulsiveness as a personality trait and as an ego development stage , 1983 .

[168]  E S Barratt,et al.  Psychometric properties of an Italian version of the Barratt Impulsiveness Scale-11 (BIS-11) in nonclinical subjects. , 2001, Journal of clinical psychology.

[169]  William D. Schafer,et al.  Gender differences in risk taking: A meta-analysis. , 1999 .

[170]  T. Tinius,et al.  The intermediate visual and auditory continuous performance test as a neuropsychological measure. , 2003, Archives of clinical neuropsychology : the official journal of the National Academy of Neuropsychologists.

[171]  Christine A. Henle Predicting workplace deviance from the interaction between organizational justice and personality. , 2005 .

[172]  Marcia C. Linn,et al.  The Psychology of Gender: Advances through Meta-Analysis , 1989 .

[173]  J. Wilding,et al.  Effects of speed and accuracy instructions on performance in a visual search task by children with good or poor attention. , 2007, British journal of psychology.

[174]  A. Neubauer Psychometric comparison of two circadian rhythm questionnaires and their relationship with personality , 1992 .

[175]  J. Richards,et al.  Effects of sleep deprivation on impulsive behaviors in men and women , 2007, Physiology & Behavior.

[176]  A. Mehrabian,et al.  Beyond IQ: broad-based measurement of individual success potential or "emotional intelligence". , 2000, Genetic, social, and general psychology monographs.

[177]  Ingmar H. A. Franken,et al.  BIS/BAS Sensitivity and the P300 Event-Related Brain Potential , 2007 .

[178]  L. Plouffe,et al.  Age, Sex, and Personality Correlates of Self-Actualization in Elderly Adults , 1989, Psychological reports.

[179]  Paul S. Maxim,et al.  Drinking and Driving, Self-Control, and Gender: Testing a General Theory of Crime , 1993 .

[180]  E. Frank Gender and its effects on psychopathology , 2000 .

[181]  C. Ávila,et al.  The role of Gray's impulsivity in anxiety‐mediated differences in resistance to extinction , 2000 .

[182]  Larry V Hedges,et al.  The power of statistical tests for moderators in meta-analysis. , 2004, Psychological methods.

[183]  M. Zuckerman,et al.  Experience and desire: A new format for Sensation Seeking Scales , 1984 .

[184]  F. Johansson,et al.  Personality traits in patients with idiopathic pain disorder , 1987, Acta psychiatrica Scandinavica.

[185]  D. Fowles Psychophysiology and psychopathology: a motivational approach. , 1988, Psychophysiology.

[186]  J. Gray,et al.  The psychophysiological basis of introversion-extraversion. , 1970, Behaviour research and therapy.

[187]  M. Linden,et al.  Adolescent Impulsivity: Findings From a Community Sample , 2005 .

[188]  Colin M. Macleod Half a century of research on the Stroop effect: an integrative review. , 1991, Psychological bulletin.

[189]  D. Antonowicz,et al.  Hostile attributional biases, driving anger, and roadway aggression among university students : application of a model of affective aggression , 2003 .

[190]  Albert Maydeu-Olivares,et al.  Age and gender differences in social problem-solving ability , 1998 .

[191]  W. Damon,et al.  Social, emotional, and personality development , 1998 .

[192]  A. Burns,et al.  Time perspective: temporal extension, time estimation, and impulsivity. , 1998, The Journal of psychology.

[193]  M. Daly,et al.  Sex, evolution, and behavior : adaptations for reproduction , 1978 .

[194]  M. McMurran,et al.  Alcohol and aggression: Gender differences in their relationships with impulsiveness, sensation seeking and social problem solving , 2005 .

[195]  G. Matthews,et al.  The prediction of habitual alcohol use from alcohol related expectancies and personality. , 1988, Alcohol and alcoholism.

[196]  C. Carver,et al.  Behavioral inhibition, behavioral activation, and affective responses to impending reward and punishment: The BIS/BAS Scales , 1994 .

[197]  D. Zabel,et al.  Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, 4th ed , 1995 .

[198]  Robert A. Silverman,et al.  LOW SELF-CONTROL AND OPPORTUNITY: TESTING THE GENERAL THEORY OF CRIME AS AN EXPLANATION FOR GENDER DIFFERENCES IN DELINQUENCY* , 1999 .

[199]  M. Coory,et al.  Comment on: Heterogeneity in meta-analysis should be expected and appropriately quantified. , 2010, International journal of epidemiology.

[200]  Laura A. Curry AFFECT, DECISION MAKING, AND ADOLESCENT RISK BEHAVIOR , 2004 .

[201]  B. A. Matthews,et al.  Characterological, situational, and behavioral risk factors for motor vehicle accidents: a prospective examination. , 2000, Accident; analysis and prevention.

[202]  M. Posner,et al.  Toward a physical basis of attention and self regulation. , 2009, Physics of life reviews.

[203]  R. Bland,et al.  Antisocial Personality Disorders , 1994 .

[204]  C. R. Cloninger,et al.  Relationships between Cloninger's, Zuckerman's, and Eysenck's dimensions of personality. , 1996, Personality and individual differences.

[205]  H. de Wit,et al.  Personality and gender differences in effects of d-amphetamine on risk taking. , 2007, Experimental and clinical psychopharmacology.

[206]  D. Lykken,et al.  A study of anxiety in the sociopathic personality. , 1957, Journal of abnormal psychology.

[207]  A. Pickering,et al.  The relationship between Gray's and Eysenck's personality spaces , 1993 .

[208]  J. Patton,et al.  Factor structure of the Barratt impulsiveness scale. , 1995, Journal of clinical psychology.

[209]  S. Mitchell,et al.  Measures of impulsivity in cigarette smokers and non-smokers , 1999, Psychopharmacology.

[210]  D. Fowles Application of a behavioral theory of motivation to the concepts of anxiety and impulsivity , 1987 .

[211]  P. R. Pearson,et al.  Impulsivity and religiosity , 1986 .

[212]  C. Ávila,et al.  The Sensitivity to Punishment and Sensitivity to Reward Questionnaire (SPSRQ) as a measure of Gray's anxiety and impulsivity dimensions. , 2001 .

[213]  Alexander T. Vazsonyi,et al.  Sex Differences In Crime: Do Means and Within-Sex Variation Have Similar Causes? , 1995 .

[214]  D. Dougherty,et al.  Distinctions in Behavioral Impulsivity: Implications for Substance Abuse Research , 2009, Addictive disorders & their treatment.

[215]  J. Archer,et al.  Variability among Males in Sexually Selected Attributes , 2003 .

[216]  K. Rigby,et al.  Impulsiveness, orientation to institutional authority, and gender as factors in self-reported delinquency among Australian adolescents , 1989 .

[217]  J. Gray,et al.  SOCIABILITY/IMPULSIVITY AND CAFFEINE-INDUCED AROUSAL: CRITICAL FLICKER/FUSION FREQUENCY AND PROCEDURAL LEARNING , 1995 .

[218]  J. Steinmetz,et al.  P300, disinhibited personality, and early-onset alcohol problems. , 2001, Alcoholism, clinical and experimental research.

[219]  J. Richards,et al.  Acute Administration of d-Amphetamine Decreases Impulsivity in Healthy Volunteers , 2002, Neuropsychopharmacology.

[220]  A. Damasio,et al.  Deciding Advantageously Before Knowing the Advantageous Strategy , 1997, Science.

[221]  Hans J. Eysenck,et al.  The Eysenck Personality Inventory , 1965 .

[222]  R. Nesse,et al.  An evolutionary life-history framework for understanding sex differences in human mortality rates , 2006, Human nature.

[223]  S. Stoltenberg,et al.  Does gender moderate associations among impulsivity and health-risk behaviors? , 2008, Addictive behaviors.

[224]  R. S. Lynch,et al.  Characteristics of Two Groups of Angry Drivers. , 2003 .

[225]  I. Sigel,et al.  HANDBOOK OF CHILD PSYCHOLOGY , 2006 .

[226]  P. Oas Validity of the draw-a-person and Bender Gestalt tests as measures of impulsivity with adolescents. , 1984, Journal of consulting and clinical psychology.

[227]  A. Ardila,et al.  On the evolutionary origins of executive functions , 2008, Brain and Cognition.

[228]  K. Anderson Androgeny, flexibility, and individualism. , 1986, Journal of Personality Assessment.

[229]  B. Pfefferbaum,et al.  Self-report study of impulsive and delinquent behavior in college students. , 1994, The Journal of adolescent health : official publication of the Society for Adolescent Medicine.

[230]  A. Damasio,et al.  Insensitivity to future consequences following damage to human prefrontal cortex , 1994, Cognition.

[231]  A. Manstead,et al.  The relation between gender and emotion in different cultures , 2000 .

[232]  A. Rodríguez-Fornells,et al.  Psychometric properties of the Spanish adaptation of the Social Problem-Solving Inventory-Revised (SPSI-R). , 2000 .

[233]  T. Chung,et al.  Concurrent and discriminant validity of DSM-IV symptoms of impaired control over alcohol consumption in adolescents. , 2002, Alcoholism, clinical and experimental research.

[234]  A. Hariri,et al.  Neural basis of individual differences in impulsivity: contributions of corticolimbic circuits for behavioral arousal and control. , 2006, Emotion.

[235]  Will M Aklin,et al.  Evaluation of behavioral measures of risk taking propensity with inner city adolescents. , 2005, Behaviour research and therapy.

[236]  Jacob M. Vigil,et al.  A socio-relational framework of sex differences in the expression of emotion , 2009, Behavioral and Brain Sciences.

[237]  Harold G. Grasmick,et al.  Low self-control and imprudent behavior , 1993 .

[238]  Phillip K Wood,et al.  Personality and the predisposition to engage in risky or problem behaviors during adolescence. , 2003, Journal of personality and social psychology.

[239]  C. Colder,et al.  Differentiating between sensation seeking and impulsivity through their mediated relations with alcohol use and problems. , 2007, Addictive behaviors.

[240]  N. Sadeh,et al.  Validating a distinction between primary and secondary psychopathy with measures of Gray's BIS and BAS constructs. , 2005, Journal of abnormal psychology.

[241]  C. Jackson,et al.  Conceptual distinctions among Carver and White’s (1994) BAS scales: A reward-reactivity versus trait impulsivity perspective , 2006 .

[242]  J. Evenden Varieties of impulsivity , 1999, Psychopharmacology.

[243]  M Daly,et al.  What happens when the private sector plans hospital services for the NHS: three case studies under the private finance initiative , 1997, BMJ.

[244]  Richard A. Davis,et al.  Validation of a New Scale for Measuring Problematic Internet Use: Implications for Pre-employment Screening , 2002, Cyberpsychology Behav. Soc. Netw..

[245]  D. Llewellyn The psychology of risk taking: toward the integration of psychometric and neuropsychological paradigms. , 2008, The American journal of psychology.

[246]  Paul T. Costa,et al.  Comparison of EPI and psychoticism scales with measures of the five-factor model of personality , 1985 .

[247]  Stephen Joseph,et al.  Assessing the component structure of four self-report measures of impulsivity , 2004 .

[248]  Karen Rodham,et al.  Deliberate self harm in adolescents: self report survey in schools in England , 2002, BMJ : British Medical Journal.

[249]  J. Cheong,et al.  Irrational Beliefs and Behavioral Misregulation in the Role of Alcohol Abuse Among College Students , 1998 .

[250]  L. Hedges,et al.  Statistical Methods for Meta-Analysis , 1987 .

[251]  G. Pearlson,et al.  Investigating the behavioral and self-report constructs of impulsivity domains using principal component analysis , 2009, Behavioural pharmacology.

[252]  M. Brosnan,et al.  ‘They are out of control’: self‐perceptions, risk‐taking and attributional style of adolescents with SEBDs , 2006 .

[253]  K. Sher,et al.  Decision making and binge drinking: a longitudinal study. , 2007, Alcoholism, clinical and experimental research.

[254]  C. Izard,et al.  Motivation, emotion, and personality , 1985 .

[255]  J. Simons Differential Prediction of Alcohol Use and Problems: The Role of Biopsychological and Social‐Environmental Variables , 2003, The American journal of drug and alcohol abuse.

[256]  P. Corr,et al.  Reactions to threat and personality: Psychometric differentiation of intensity and direction dimensions of human defensive behaviour , 2006, Behavioural Brain Research.

[257]  A. Bechara,et al.  A French Adaptation of the UPPS Impulsive Behavior Scale: Confirmatory Factor Analysis in a Sample o , 2006 .

[258]  Stephen D. Benning,et al.  Linking antisocial behavior, substance use, and personality: an integrative quantitative model of the adult externalizing spectrum. , 2007, Journal of abnormal psychology.

[259]  Michael R. Gottfredson,et al.  A general theory of crime. , 1992 .

[260]  Y. Bin,et al.  The Strength Model of Self-Control , 2013 .

[261]  K. Vohs,et al.  The Strength Model of Self-Control , 2007, Encyclopedia of Behavioral Medicine.

[262]  Mick Brammer,et al.  Sex-dependent age modulation of frontostriatal and temporo-parietal activation during cognitive control , 2009, NeuroImage.

[263]  J. Arnett Sensation seeking: A new conceptualization and a new scale , 1994 .

[264]  Myrna B. Shure,et al.  The Impulsive client : theory, research, and treatment , 1993 .

[265]  Cloninger Cr A systematic method for clinical description and classification of personality variants: A proposal. , 1987 .

[266]  J. Brebner,et al.  Gender and emotions , 2003 .

[267]  H. Caci,et al.  Functional and dysfunctional impulsivity: contribution to the construct validity , 2003, Acta psychiatrica Scandinavica.

[268]  D. Stuss,et al.  Development of orbitofrontal function: Current themes and future directions , 2004, Brain and Cognition.

[269]  Antoni Rodríguez-Fornells,et al.  Are high-impulsive and high risk-taking people more motor disinhibited in the presence of incentive? , 2002 .

[270]  C. Lejuez,et al.  Construct Validity of the Balloon Analog Risk Task (BART) , 2005, Assessment.

[271]  J. Newman,et al.  Mapping Gray's BIS and BAS Constructs onto Factor 1 and Factor 2 of Hare's Psychopathy Checklist - Revised. , 2009, Personality and individual differences.

[272]  J. Bjork,et al.  Two models of impulsivity: relationship to personality traits and psychopathology , 2002, Biological Psychiatry.

[273]  Jr. Russell Noyes,et al.  Anxiety and Its Disorders: The Nature and Treatment of Anxiety and Panic , 1990 .

[274]  Y. Rim Impulsivity, venturesomeness, empathy and schizotypy , 1994 .

[275]  D. Meyer,et al.  Impulsivity and speed-accuracy tradeoffs in information processing. , 1988, Journal of personality and social psychology.

[276]  M. Herrmann,et al.  Electrophysiological assessment of impulsive behavior in healthy subjects , 2001, Neuropsychologia.

[277]  J. Archer,et al.  The relation between scores on the Buss–Perry Aggression Questionnaire and aggressive acts, impulsiveness, competitiveness, dominance, and sexual jealousy , 2006 .

[278]  G. Crombez,et al.  The Psychopathic Personality Inventory: Construct validity of the two-factor structure , 2007 .

[279]  Christine R. Harris,et al.  Gender Differences in Risk Assessment: Why do Women Take Fewer Risks than Men? , 2006, Judgment and Decision Making.

[280]  T. Joiner,et al.  The role of urgency in maladaptive behaviors. , 2007, Behaviour research and therapy.

[281]  Ryan C. Martin,et al.  Boredom proneness in anger and aggression: effects of impulsiveness and sensation seeking , 2004 .

[282]  G. Kochanska,et al.  Effortful control as a personality characteristic of young children: antecedents, correlates, and consequences. , 2003, Journal of personality.

[283]  J. Spence,et al.  Sexually Aggressive Tactics in Dating Relationships: Personality and Attitudinal Correlates , 1991 .

[284]  J. Shepherd VIOLENT CRIME IN BRISTOL An Accident and Emergency Department Perspective , 1990 .

[285]  K. Rubia,et al.  Conduct Problems in Adolescence: Three Domains of Inhibition and Effect of Gender , 2006, Developmental neuropsychology.

[286]  C. Begg,et al.  Operating characteristics of a rank correlation test for publication bias. , 1994, Biometrics.

[287]  M. Rothbart,et al.  Temperament and personality: origins and outcomes. , 2000, Journal of personality and social psychology.

[288]  M. Zuckerman,et al.  Personality and risk-taking: common biosocial factors. , 2000, Journal of personality.

[289]  Betty Pfefferbaum,et al.  RISK-TAKING AND SELF-CONTROL: SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGICAL CORRELATES OF DELINQUENCY , 1993 .

[290]  M. Stanford,et al.  Irritability and impulsiveness: relationship to self-reported impulsive aggression , 1995 .

[291]  Melissa A. Cyders,et al.  Integration of impulsivity and positive mood to predict risky behavior: development and validation of a measure of positive urgency. , 2007, Psychological assessment.

[292]  M. Carrillo-de-la-Peña,et al.  The components of impulsiveness: A comparison of the I.7 impulsiveness questionnaire and the Barratt impulsiveness scale , 1991 .

[293]  W. Kliewer,et al.  Domestic violence exposure in Colombian adolescents: pathways to violent and prosocial behavior. , 2006, Journal of traumatic stress.

[294]  Erik Schouten,et al.  The influence of emotion-focused rumination and distraction on depressive symptoms in non-clinical youth: a meta-analytic review. , 2009, Clinical psychology review.

[295]  R. McCrae,et al.  Universal features of personality traits from the observer's perspective: data from 50 cultures. , 2005, Journal of personality and social psychology.

[296]  K. Carey,et al.  Association Between Alcohol Intoxication and Alcohol-Related Problems: An Event-Level Analysis , 2007, Psychology of addictive behaviors : journal of the Society of Psychologists in Addictive Behaviors.

[297]  Cynthia Owsley,et al.  Impact of impulsiveness, venturesomeness, and empathy on driving by older adults. , 2003, Journal of safety research.

[298]  M. Zuckerman Behavioral Expressions and Biosocial Bases of Sensation Seeking , 1994 .

[299]  S. McMahon,et al.  Violence Prevention: An Evaluation of Program Effects with Urban African American Students , 2003, Journal of Primary Prevention.

[300]  H. C. Plotkin,et al.  Darwin machines and the nature of knowledge , 1994 .

[301]  J. Gray The neuropsychology of anxiety. , 1985, Issues in mental health nursing.

[302]  J. Stigler,et al.  The temperamental characteristics of Chinese babies. , 1981, Child development.

[303]  R. Sinha,et al.  Difficulties in emotion regulation and impulse control during cocaine abstinence. , 2007, Drug and alcohol dependence.

[304]  M. Zuckerman Sensation Seeking : Beyond the Optimal Level of Arousal , 1979 .

[305]  Sarah Fischer,et al.  On the Validity and Utility of Discriminating Among Impulsivity-Like Traits , 2007, Assessment.

[306]  Ann L. Brown,et al.  Advances in developmental psychology , 1981 .

[307]  Samuel M. McClure,et al.  Separate Neural Systems Value Immediate and Delayed Monetary Rewards , 2004, Science.

[308]  Benjamin F. Rodriguez,et al.  Psychometric Properties , 2009 .

[309]  G. Bennett,et al.  The assessment. , 1989, Health visitor.

[310]  A. Feingold,et al.  Gender differences in personality: a meta-analysis. , 1994, Psychological bulletin.

[311]  K. Heuser The psychopathic personality; the Rorschach patterns of 28 cases. , 1946, The American journal of psychiatry.

[312]  Steven Muncer,et al.  Can ‘risky’ impulsivity explain sex differences in aggression? , 2009 .

[313]  R. Pihl,et al.  Assessment of measures of impulsivity in healthy male volunteers , 1995 .

[314]  T. N. Robinson Eysenck personality measures and religious orientation , 1990 .

[315]  Grazyna Kochanska,et al.  Effortful Control: Factor Structure and Relation to Externalizing and Internalizing Behaviors , 2002, Journal of abnormal child psychology.

[316]  Catalina J. Hooper,et al.  Adolescents' performance on the Iowa Gambling Task: implications for the development of decision making and ventromedial prefrontal cortex. , 2004, Developmental psychology.

[317]  C. Correia,et al.  An affective-motivational model of marijuana and alcohol problems among college students. , 2005, Psychology of addictive behaviors : journal of the Society of Psychologists in Addictive Behaviors.

[318]  J. Stroop Studies of interference in serial verbal reactions. , 1992 .

[319]  A. Campbell,et al.  A Mind of Her Own: The Evolutionary Psychology of Women(2nd edn) , 2002, Psychology Teaching Review.

[320]  E. Barratt,et al.  Psychometric Properties of an Adolescent Version of the Barratt Impulsiveness Scale-11 for a Sample of Italian High School Students , 2002, Perceptual and motor skills.

[321]  Diane M. Tomasic,et al.  Meta-Analysis: A Comparison of Approaches , 2005 .

[322]  Alexander Neumeister,et al.  Interactive Effects of Sex and 5-HTTLPR on Mood and Impulsivity During Tryptophan Depletion in Healthy People , 2007, Biological Psychiatry.

[323]  K. Kirby,et al.  Correlates of delay-discount rates: Evidence from Tsimane' Amerindians of the Bolivian rain forest , 2002 .

[324]  S. Thompson,et al.  Detecting and describing heterogeneity in meta-analysis. , 1998, Statistics in medicine.

[325]  M. Spinella,et al.  Prefrontal substrates of empathy: Psychometric evidence in a community sample , 2005, Biological Psychology.

[326]  A. Campbell,et al.  Staying alive: Evolution, culture, and women's intrasexual aggression , 1999, Behavioral and Brain Sciences.

[327]  Mary K. Wingo The Adolescent Stress Response to a Naturalistic Driving Stressor , 2000 .

[328]  S. Thompson,et al.  Quantifying heterogeneity in a meta‐analysis , 2002, Statistics in medicine.

[329]  M. Wood,et al.  College Drinking Game Participation Within the Context of Other Predictors of Alcohol Use and Problems , 1994 .

[330]  R. Barkley The Executive Functions and Self-Regulation: An Evolutionary Neuropsychological Perspective , 2001, Neuropsychology Review.

[331]  T. Pratt,et al.  THE EMPIRICAL STATUS OF GOTTFREDSON AND HIRSCHI'S GENERAL THEORY OF CRIME: A META‐ANALYSIS , 2000 .

[332]  R. Hare,et al.  Psychopathic Behaviour Approaches to Research , 1978 .

[333]  P. Weyers,et al.  RELIABILITY AND CONSTRUCT VALIDITY OF THE GERMAN VERSION OF CLONINGER'S TRIDIMENSIONAL PERSONALITY QUESTIONNAIRE , 1995 .

[334]  A. Jensen,et al.  The g factor , 1996, Nature.

[335]  P. Shih,et al.  Influence of Impulsivity-Reflexivity when Testing Dynamic Spatial Ability: Sex and g Differences , 2007, The Spanish Journal of Psychology.

[336]  P. Costa,et al.  Gender differences in personality traits across cultures: robust and surprising findings. , 2001, Journal of personality and social psychology.

[337]  Giuseppe Blasi,et al.  Neural mechanisms of genetic risk for impulsivity and violence in humans. , 2006, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America.

[338]  Marianne Schmid Mast,et al.  Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin Gender Differences in Memory for the Appearance of Others , 2022 .

[339]  L. Hedges,et al.  Introduction to Meta‐Analysis , 2009, International Coaching Psychology Review.

[340]  J. Gray,et al.  Précis of The neuropsychology of anxiety: An enquiry into the functions of the septo-hippocampal system , 1982, Behavioral and Brain Sciences.

[341]  H. Eysenck,et al.  The causes and cures of criminality , 1989 .

[342]  T. Robbins,et al.  The effects of intradimensional and extradimensional shifts on visual discrimination learning in humans and non-human primates , 1988, The Quarterly journal of experimental psychology. B, Comparative and physiological psychology.

[343]  A. Geliebter,et al.  Test meal intake in obese binge eaters in relation to impulsivity and compulsivity. , 2007, The International journal of eating disorders.

[344]  C. R. Cloninger,et al.  A unified biosocial theory of personality and its role in the development of anxiety states. , 1986, Psychiatric developments.

[345]  H. Goldsmith,et al.  Gender differences in temperament: a meta-analysis. , 2006, Psychological bulletin.

[346]  T. Shallice Specific impairments of planning. , 1982, Philosophical transactions of the Royal Society of London. Series B, Biological sciences.

[347]  Christopher K. Hsee,et al.  Risk as Feelings , 2001, Psychological bulletin.

[348]  Robert B. Penfold,et al.  Laboratory and self-report assessments of impulsive behavior in adolescent daily smokers and nonsmokers. , 2007, Experimental and clinical psychopharmacology.

[349]  J. Block,et al.  Some Misgivings About the Matching Familiar Figures Test as a Measure of Reflection-Impulsivity. , 1974 .

[350]  E. Scott Geller,et al.  Measuring road rage: development of the Propensity for Angry Driving Scale , 2001 .

[351]  L. Hedges,et al.  Sex differences in mental test scores, variability, and numbers of high-scoring individuals. , 1995, Science.

[352]  J. Parik,et al.  Platelet MAO activity and the 5-HTT gene promoter polymorphism are associated with impulsivity and cognitive style in visual information processing , 2007, Psychopharmacology.

[353]  Beatrice Rammstedt,et al.  Sex-related differences in time estimation: the role of personality , 2000 .

[354]  M. Eysenck,et al.  Personality and Individual Differences: A Natural Science Approach , 1985 .

[355]  M. L. Cooper,et al.  A motivational perspective on risky behaviors: the role of personality and affect regulatory processes. , 2000, Journal of personality.

[356]  F. Moeller,et al.  Gender Differences Among MDMA Users on Psychological and Drug History Variables , 2005 .

[357]  J. Veijola,et al.  Sex differences in Cloninger's temperament dimensions--a meta-analysis. , 2007, Comprehensive psychiatry.

[358]  F. Pampel Gender equality and the sex differential in mortality from accidents in high income nations , 2001 .

[359]  Clark Spencer Larsen,et al.  Equality for the sexes in human evolution? Early hominid sexual dimorphism and implications for mating systems and social behavior , 2003, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America.

[360]  E. Coccaro,et al.  CSF testosterone: relationship to aggression, impulsivity, and venturesomeness in adult males with personality disorder. , 2007, Journal of psychiatric research.

[361]  Andrew P. Smith,et al.  Correlates of daily caffeine consumption , 2006, Appetite.

[362]  S. Eysenck The I₇: Development of a measure of impulsivity and its relationship to the superfactors of personality. , 1993 .

[363]  A. Campbell,et al.  Reason to Believe: Representations of Aggression as Phenomenological Read-Out , 2004 .

[364]  T. Trull,et al.  Borderline personality disorder features predict negative outcomes 2 years later. , 2004, Journal of abnormal psychology.

[365]  Chen-Ying Huang,et al.  Gender differences in punishment and reward sensitivity in a sample of Taiwanese college students , 2007 .

[366]  Silvia Simó,et al.  A French junior sensation seeking scale (J-SSS) , 1991 .

[367]  K. Macdonald,et al.  Effortful control, explicit processing, and the regulation of human evolved predispositions. , 2008, Psychological review.

[368]  M. Spinella,et al.  Associations among aspects of impulsivity and eating factors in a nonclinical sample. , 2004, The International journal of eating disorders.

[369]  Andreu Vigil-Colet,et al.  Aggression and inhibition deficits, the role of functional and dysfunctional impulsivity , 2004 .

[370]  R. Depue,et al.  Neurobiology of the structure of personality: Dopamine, facilitation of incentive motivation, and extraversion , 1999, Behavioral and Brain Sciences.

[371]  M. Zuckerman,et al.  DEVELOPMENT OF A SENSATION-SEEKING SCALE. , 1964, Journal of consulting psychology.

[372]  R. Fabes,et al.  Concerns about drawing causal inferences from meta-analyses: an example in the study of gender differences in aggression. , 1996, Psychological bulletin.

[373]  C. Nagoshi Perceived Control of Drinking and Other Predictors of Alcohol Use and Problems in a College Student Sample , 1999 .

[374]  S. Cross,et al.  Models of the self: self-construals and gender. , 1997, Psychological bulletin.

[375]  Victoria Arango,et al.  Effects of sex, age, and aggressive traits in man on brain serotonin 5-HT1A receptor binding potential measured by PET using [C-11]WAY-100635 , 2002, Brain Research.

[376]  L. Epstein,et al.  Comparison between two measures of delay discounting in smokers. , 2003, Experimental and clinical psychopharmacology.

[377]  Jennifer M. Glass,et al.  Possible association between response inhibition and a variant in the brain-expressed tryptophan hydroxylase-2 gene , 2006, Psychiatric genetics.

[378]  Robert J. Oxoby,et al.  Measuring Impatience: Elicited Discount Rates and the Barratt Impulsiveness Scale , 2007 .

[379]  John Archer,et al.  Comparison of Two Aggression Inventories , 1995 .

[380]  G. Gudjonsson,et al.  Personality predictors of self-reported offending in Icelandic students , 2006 .

[381]  S. Schwartz The Structure of Identity Consolidation: Multiple Correlated Constructs or One Superordinate Construct? , 2007 .

[382]  Philip D. Harvey,et al.  Dispositional impulsivity in normal and abnormal samples. , 2006, Journal of psychiatric research.

[383]  J. Cummings Frontal-subcortical circuits and human behavior. , 1998, Archives of neurology.

[384]  S. Kollins,et al.  Delay discounting is associated with substance use in college students. , 2003, Addictive behaviors.

[385]  M. Leboyer,et al.  Impaired decision making in suicide attempters. , 2005, The American journal of psychiatry.

[386]  R. Rosenthal,et al.  Meta-analysis: recent developments in quantitative methods for literature reviews. , 2001, Annual review of psychology.

[387]  J. Richards,et al.  Dimensions of impulsive behavior: Personality and behavioral measures , 2006 .

[388]  S. Dawe,et al.  Reward drive and rash impulsiveness as dimensions of impulsivity: implications for substance misuse. , 2004, Addictive behaviors.

[389]  N. Duan,et al.  Correlates of Injury Among ED Visits: Effects of Alcohol, Risk Perception, Impulsivity, and Sensation Seeking Behaviors , 2007, The American journal of drug and alcohol abuse.

[390]  D. Rawlings The correlation of EPQ psychoticism with two behavioural measures of impulsivity , 1984 .

[391]  Andreu Vigil-Colet,et al.  Impulsivity and decision making in the balloon analogue risk-taking task , 2007 .

[392]  Sexual dimorphism in primate evolution. , 2001, American journal of physical anthropology.

[393]  J. Patton,et al.  Fifty years of the Barratt Impulsiveness Scale: An update and review , 2009 .

[394]  E. Rolls The orbitofrontal cortex and reward. , 2000, Cerebral cortex.

[395]  Phil A. Silva,et al.  Sex differences in antisocial behaviour , 2006 .

[396]  R. Torrubia,et al.  Hostility-Aggressiveness, Sensation Seeking, and Sex Hormones in Men: Re-Exploring Their Relationship , 2004, Neuropsychobiology.

[397]  D. Clarke Impulsiveness, Locus of Control, Motivation and Problem Gambling , 2004, Journal of Gambling Studies.

[398]  N. Pachana,et al.  Predictors of young dating adults' inclination to engage in extradyadic sexual activities: a multi-perspective study. , 2005, British journal of psychology.

[399]  Ultimate and proximate influences on human sex differences , 2009 .

[400]  J. John Mann,et al.  Impulsivity, gender, and response to fenfluramine challenge in borderline personality disorder , 2003, Psychiatry Research.

[401]  Oliver C. Schultheiss,et al.  Assessing Implicit Motives in U.S. College Students: Effects of Picture Type and Position, Gender and Ethnicity, and Cross-Cultural Comparisons , 2005, Journal of personality assessment.

[402]  M. Maziade Infant Temperament: SES and Gender Differences and Reliability of Measurement in a Large Quebec Sample. , 1984 .

[403]  M. Commons The effect of delay and of intervening events on reinforcement value , 2013 .

[404]  W. Overman,et al.  Performance on the IOWA card task by adolescents and adults , 2004, Neuropsychologia.

[405]  C. McLean,et al.  Brave men and timid women? A review of the gender differences in fear and anxiety. , 2009, Clinical psychology review.

[406]  S. Lane,et al.  Relationships Among Laboratory and Psychometric Measures of Impulsivity: Implications in Substance Abuse and Dependence , 2003 .

[407]  Y. Bar-Haim,et al.  Threat-related attentional bias in anxious and nonanxious individuals: a meta-analytic study. , 2007, Psychological bulletin.

[408]  H. de Wit,et al.  Reward discounting as a measure of impulsive behavior in a psychiatric outpatient population. , 2000, Experimental and clinical psychopharmacology.

[409]  M. Zuckerman,et al.  Personality in the third dimension: A psychobiological approach☆ , 1989 .

[410]  J. Kenemans,et al.  Validation of the Dutch translation of the I7 questionnaire , 2005 .

[411]  S. Nichols,et al.  Reflectivity and learning from aversive events: toward a psychological mechanism for the syndromes of disinhibition. , 1993, Psychological review.

[412]  S. Eysenck,et al.  Impulsiveness and Venturesomeness in Canadian Children , 1983, Psychological reports.

[413]  I. Franken,et al.  Impulsivity affects mismatch negativity (MMN) measures of preattentive auditory processing , 2005, Biological Psychology.

[414]  Joël Billieux,et al.  Are all facets of impulsivity related to self-reported compulsive buying behavior? , 2008 .

[415]  Harold G. Grasmick,et al.  Testing the Core Empirical Implications of Gottfredson and Hirschi's General Theory of Crime , 1993 .

[416]  J. Archer Does sexual selection explain human sex differences in aggression? , 2009, The Behavioral and brain sciences.

[417]  Cloninger Cr Discussions arising from: Cloninger, CR. A. unified biosocial theory of personality and its role in the development of anxiety states. , 1987, Psychiatric developments.

[418]  S. Whiteside,et al.  The Five Factor Model and impulsivity: using a structural model of personality to understand impulsivity , 2001 .

[419]  W. F. Straub Sensation Seeking among High and Low-Risk Male Athletes , 1982 .

[420]  M. Zuckerman,et al.  What lies beyond E and N? Factor analyses of scales believed to measure basic dimensions of personality. , 1988 .

[421]  F. Earls,et al.  Psychometric properties of impulsivity measures: temporal stability, validity and factor structure. , 1995, Journal of child psychology and psychiatry, and allied disciplines.

[422]  Charles W. Mathias,et al.  Impulsiveness and risk-taking behavior: comparison of high-school and college students using the Barratt Impulsiveness Scale , 1996 .

[423]  M. Zuckerman,et al.  Sensation Seeking And Risky Behavior , 2006 .

[424]  D. Farrington,et al.  Long-term criminal outcomes of hyperactivity-impulsivity-attention deficit and conduct problems in childhood. , 1990 .

[425]  Irene Daum,et al.  A cross-cultural study of impulsiveness, venturesomeness and empathy: Germany and England. , 1990 .

[426]  A. Tellegen Brief manual for the Differential Personality Questionnaire , 1982 .

[427]  L. Steinberg,et al.  CURRENT DIRECTIONS IN PSYCHOLOGICAL SCIENCE Risk Taking in Adolescence New Perspectives From Brain and Behavioral Science , 2022 .

[428]  Gregory T. Smith,et al.  Deliberation affects risk taking beyond sensation seeking. , 2004 .

[429]  D. Hommer,et al.  Impulsivity in abstinent alcohol-dependent patients: relation to control subjects and type 1-/type 2-like traits. , 2004, Alcohol.

[430]  Sue-Huei Chen,et al.  Obsessive–compulsiveness and impulsivity in a non-clinical population of adolescent males and females , 2007, Psychiatry Research.

[431]  M. Thompson,et al.  Prospective associations between delinquency and suicidal behaviors in a nationally representative sample. , 2007, The Journal of adolescent health : official publication of the Society for Adolescent Medicine.

[432]  Hiroyuki Sasaki,et al.  The Effects of Trial Repetition and Individual Characteristics on Decision Making Under Uncertainty , 2005, The Journal of psychology.

[433]  G. Madden,et al.  Delay discounting of real and hypothetical rewards. , 2003, Experimental and clinical psychopharmacology.

[434]  Ingmar H. A. Franken,et al.  Gray’s impulsivity dimension: A distinction between Reward Sensitivity versus Rash Impulsiveness , 2006 .

[435]  Dinggang Shen,et al.  Puberty-related influences on brain development , 2006, Molecular and Cellular Endocrinology.

[436]  Daniel Coleman Crime in the United States, 2005 , 2007 .

[437]  Neal Doran,et al.  Impulsivity and the reinforcing value of cigarette smoking. , 2007, Addictive behaviors.

[438]  J. Patton,et al.  Toward a Conceptualization of Impulsivity: Components across the Behavioral and Self-Report Domains. , 1987, Multivariate behavioral research.

[439]  Ryan C. Martin,et al.  Driving anger, sensation seeking, impulsiveness, and boredom proneness in the prediction of unsafe driving. , 2005, Accident; analysis and prevention.

[440]  Enrique Baca-Garcia,et al.  Lack of association between the serotonin transporter promoter gene polymorphism and impulsivity or aggressive behavior among suicide attempters and healthy volunteers , 2004, Psychiatry Research.

[441]  M. Bates,et al.  Personality–environment constellations and alcohol use: A process-oriented study of intraindividual change during adolescence. , 1995 .

[442]  Deborah A. Day,et al.  Information processing in the child: Significance of analytic and reflective attitudes. , 1964 .

[443]  M. Åsberg,et al.  Personality correlates of platelet monoamine oxidase (MAO) activity in female and male subjects. , 1987, Neuropsychobiology.

[444]  E. Brähler,et al.  Beyond a youthful behavior style - Age and sex differences in sensation seeking based on need theory. , 2007 .

[445]  J. Newman,et al.  Passive avoidance in syndromes of disinhibition: psychopathy and extraversion. , 1985, Journal of personality and social psychology.

[446]  V. Robinson Everyday Masculinities and Extreme Sport: Male Identity and Rock Climbing , 2008 .

[447]  M. Rothbart,et al.  Investigations of temperament at three to seven years: the Children's Behavior Questionnaire. , 2001, Child development.

[448]  Will M Aklin,et al.  The Balloon Analogue Risk Task (BART) differentiates smokers and nonsmokers. , 2003, Experimental and clinical psychopharmacology.

[449]  A. Eagly,et al.  Gender and helping behavior: A meta-analytic review of the social psychological literature. , 1986, Psychological bulletin.

[450]  J. Torquati,et al.  Ethnic and gender differences in risk for early adolescent substance use , 1994 .

[451]  D. Glahn,et al.  Trait impulsivity in patients with mood disorders. , 2007, Journal of affective disorders.

[452]  K. E. Ketzenberger,et al.  Impulsiveness and compulsiveness in alcoholics and nonalcoholics. , 2000, Addictive behaviors.

[453]  C. Ryff,et al.  Subjective organization of personality in adulthood and aging. , 1983 .

[454]  Emotional triggers and their relation to impulsive and compulsive psychopathology , 2007 .

[455]  N. Kaslow,et al.  Self-reported psychotic symptoms predict impulsivity among African-American patients in an urban non-psychiatric medical setting , 2005, Psychiatry Research.

[456]  Paul Rose,et al.  Mediators of the association between narcissism and compulsive buying: the roles of materialism and impulse control. , 2007, Psychology of addictive behaviors : journal of the Society of Psychologists in Addictive Behaviors.

[457]  C. Nagoshi,et al.  Stress, depression, irrational beliefs, and alcohol use and problems in a college student sample. , 1995, Alcoholism, clinical and experimental research.

[458]  A. Piquero,et al.  On the relationships between gender, power control, self-control, and crime , 2005 .