Efficient Visible-Light Photocatalysis and Antibacterial Activity of TiO2-Fe3C-Fe-Fe3O4/Graphitic Carbon Composites Fabricated by Catalytic Graphitization of Sucrose Using Natural Ilmenite

Dyes in wastewater are a serious problem that needs to be resolved. Adsorption coupled photocatalysis is an innovative technique used to remove dyes from contaminated water. Novel composites of TiO2-Fe3C-Fe-Fe3O4 dispersed on graphitic carbon were fabricated using natural ilmenite sand as the source of iron and titanium, and sucrose as the carbon source, which were available at no cost. Synthesized composites were characterized by X-ray diffractometry (XRD), Raman spectroscopy, transmission electron microscopy (TEM), scanning electron microscopy (SEM), X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS), X-ray fluorescence spectroscopy (XRF), and diffuse reflectance UV–visible spectroscopy (DRS). Arrangement of nanoribbons of graphitic carbon with respect to the nanomaterials was observed in TEM images, revealing the occurrence of catalytic graphitization. Variations in the intensity ratio (ID/IG), La and LD, calculated from data obtained from Raman spectroscopy suggested that the level of graphitization increased with an increased loading of the catalysts. SEM images show the immobilization of nanoplate microballs and nanoparticles on the graphitic carbon matrix. The catalyst surface consists of Fe3+ and Ti4+ as the metal species, with V, Mn, and Zr being the main impurities. According to DRS spectra, the synthesized composites absorb light in the visible region efficiently. Fabricated composites effectively adsorb methylene blue via π–π interactions, with the absorption capacities ranging from 21.18 to 45.87 mg/g. They were effective in photodegrading methylene blue under sunlight, where the rate constants varied in the 0.003–0.007 min–1 range. Photogenerated electrons produced by photocatalysts captured by graphitic carbon produce O2•– radicals, while holes generate OH• radicals, which effectively degrade methylene blue molecules. TiO2-Fe3C-Fe-Fe3O4/graphitic carbon composites inhibited the growth of Escherichia coli (69%) and Staphylococcus aureus (92%) under visible light. Synthesized novel composites using natural materials comprise an ecofriendly, cost-effective solution to remove dyes, and they were effective in inhibiting the growth of Gram-negative and Gram-positive bacteria.

[1]  Weiwei Yang,et al.  Highly efficient recovery of heavy rare earth elements by using an amino-functionalized magnetic graphene oxide with acid and base resistance. , 2022, Journal of hazardous materials.

[2]  Zhicai He,et al.  Accelerating charge transfer via nonconjugated polyelectrolyte interlayers toward efficient versatile photoredox catalysis , 2021, Communications Chemistry.

[3]  Ramy H. Mohammed,et al.  Removal of heavy metal ions from wastewater: a comprehensive and critical review , 2021, npj Clean Water.

[4]  Rong Huang,et al.  Ion-Exchange Resins for Efficient Removal of Colorants in Bis(hydroxyethyl) Terephthalate , 2021, ACS omega.

[5]  Yang Xia,et al.  Green synthesis of graphite from CO2 without graphitization process of amorphous carbon , 2021, Nature Communications.

[6]  H. Ngo,et al.  A critical review on advances in the practices and perspectives for the treatment of dye industry wastewater , 2020, Bioengineered.

[7]  Wenhua Chen,et al.  Preparation of a novel nitrogen-containing graphitic mesoporous carbon for the removal of acid red 88 , 2020, Scientific Reports.

[8]  H. El-Didamony,et al.  Improved size, morphology and crystallinity of hematite (α-Fe2O3) nanoparticles synthesized via the precipitation route using ferric sulfate precursor , 2019, Results in Physics.

[9]  S. Sen Gupta,et al.  Nanomaterials as versatile adsorbents for heavy metal ions in water: a review , 2019, Environmental Science and Pollution Research.

[10]  Qingliang Liao,et al.  Solid and macroporous Fe3C/N-C nanofibers with enhanced electromagnetic wave absorbability , 2018, Scientific Reports.

[11]  Jianbin Luo,et al.  Superlubricity of Graphite Sliding against Graphene Nanoflake under Ultrahigh Contact Pressure , 2018, Advanced science.

[12]  Zongping Shao,et al.  Facile Strategy to Low-Cost Synthesis of Hierarchically Porous, Active Carbon of High Graphitization for Energy Storage. , 2018, ACS applied materials & interfaces.

[13]  Madan Singh,et al.  Size and shape effects on the band gap of semiconductor compound nanomaterials , 2017, Journal of Taibah University for Science.

[14]  K. Hristovski,et al.  Engineering metal (hydr)oxide sorbents for removal of arsenate and similar weak-acid oxyanion contaminants: A critical review with emphasis on factors governing sorption processes. , 2017, The Science of the total environment.

[15]  Mahesh R. Gadekar,et al.  Coagulation/flocculation process for dye removal using water treatment residuals: modelling through artificial neural networks , 2016 .

[16]  A. Machado,et al.  Structural characterization of Ag-doped TiO2 with enhanced photocatalytic activity , 2015 .

[17]  Andrew M. Beale,et al.  Base Metal Catalyzed Graphitization of Cellulose: A Combined Raman Spectroscopy, Temperature-Dependent X-ray Diffraction and High-Resolution Transmission Electron Microscopy Study , 2015 .

[18]  H. Fu,et al.  Facile synthesis of high-crystallinity graphitic carbon/Fe₃C nanocomposites as counter electrodes for high-efficiency dye-sensitized solar cells. , 2013, ACS applied materials & interfaces.

[19]  E. Grabińska-Sota,et al.  Biological Removal of Azo and Triphenylmethane Dyes and Toxicity of Process By-Products , 2011, Water, Air, & Soil Pollution.

[20]  Jules B van Lier,et al.  Review paper on current technologies for decolourisation of textile wastewaters: perspectives for anaerobic biotechnology. , 2007, Bioresource technology.

[21]  C. Thambiliyagodage,et al.  One Pot Synthesis of Carbon/Ni Nanoparticle Monolithic Composites by Nanocasting and Their Catalytic Activity for 4-Nitrophenol Reduction , 2006 .

[22]  A. Ōya,et al.  Catalytic graphitization of carbons by various metals , 1979 .