2019 Novel Coronavirus (COVID-19) Pandemic: Built Environment Considerations To Reduce Transmission

With the rapid spread of severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) that results in coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19), corporate entities, federal, state, county, and city governments, universities, school districts, places of worship, prisons, health care facilities, assisted living organizations, daycares, homeowners, and other building owners and occupants have an opportunity to reduce the potential for transmission through built environment (BE)-mediated pathways. Over the last decade, substantial research into the presence, abundance, diversity, function, and transmission of microbes in the BE has taken place and revealed common pathogen exchange pathways and mechanisms. ABSTRACT With the rapid spread of severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) that results in coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19), corporate entities, federal, state, county, and city governments, universities, school districts, places of worship, prisons, health care facilities, assisted living organizations, daycares, homeowners, and other building owners and occupants have an opportunity to reduce the potential for transmission through built environment (BE)-mediated pathways. Over the last decade, substantial research into the presence, abundance, diversity, function, and transmission of microbes in the BE has taken place and revealed common pathogen exchange pathways and mechanisms. In this paper, we synthesize this microbiology of the BE research and the known information about SARS-CoV-2 to provide actionable and achievable guidance to BE decision makers, building operators, and all indoor occupants attempting to minimize infectious disease transmission through environmentally mediated pathways. We believe this information is useful to corporate and public administrators and individuals responsible for building operations and environmental services in their decision-making process about the degree and duration of social-distancing measures during viral epidemics and pandemics. Author Video: An author video summary of this article is available.

[1]  J. Wong,et al.  Nonpharmaceutical Measures for Pandemic Influenza in Nonhealthcare Settings—International Travel-Related Measures , 2020, Emerging infectious diseases.

[2]  J. Wong,et al.  Nonpharmaceutical Measures for Pandemic Influenza in Nonhealthcare Settings—Social Distancing Measures , 2020, Emerging infectious diseases.

[3]  Alfonso J. Rodriguez-Morales,et al.  A new emerging zoonotic virus of concern: the 2019 novel Coronavirus (COVID-19) , 2020 .

[4]  Dylan H. Morris,et al.  Aerosol and Surface Stability of SARS-CoV-2 as Compared with SARS-CoV-1 , 2020, The New England journal of medicine.

[5]  Yusen Duan,et al.  Aerodynamic Characteristics and RNA Concentration of SARS-CoV-2 Aerosol in Wuhan Hospitals during COVID-19 Outbreak , 2020, bioRxiv.

[6]  Oon Tek Ng,et al.  Air, Surface Environmental, and Personal Protective Equipment Contamination by Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) From a Symptomatic Patient. , 2020, JAMA.

[7]  A. M. Leontovich,et al.  The species Severe acute respiratory syndrome-related coronavirus: classifying 2019-nCoV and naming it SARS-CoV-2 , 2020, Nature Microbiology.

[8]  G. Chowell,et al.  Estimating the asymptomatic proportion of coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) cases on board the Diamond Princess cruise ship, Yokohama, Japan, 2020 , 2020, Euro surveillance : bulletin Europeen sur les maladies transmissibles = European communicable disease bulletin.

[9]  J. Hageman.  The Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19). , 2020, Pediatric annals.

[10]  A. Rodríguez-Morales,et al.  Coronavirus Disease 2019–COVID-19 , 2020, Clinical Microbiology Reviews.

[11]  G. Chowell,et al.  Transmission potential of the novel coronavirus (COVID-19) onboard the diamond Princess Cruises Ship, 2020 , 2020, Infectious Disease Modelling.

[12]  L. Poon,et al.  Emergence of a novel human coronavirus threatening human health , 2020, Nature Medicine.

[13]  H. Rothan,et al.  The epidemiology and pathogenesis of coronavirus disease (COVID-19) outbreak , 2020, Journal of Autoimmunity.

[14]  Gang Chen,et al.  Clinical and pathological characteristics of 2019 novel coronavirus disease (COVID-19): a systematic review , 2020, medRxiv.

[15]  S. Zhang,et al.  Estimation of the reproductive number of novel coronavirus (COVID-19) and the probable outbreak size on the Diamond Princess cruise ship: A data-driven analysis , 2020, International Journal of Infectious Diseases.

[16]  Md. Siddikur Rahman,et al.  The SARS, MERS and novel coronavirus (COVID-19) epidemics, the newest and biggest global health threats: what lessons have we learned? , 2020, International journal of epidemiology.

[17]  Yongli Cai,et al.  Epidemic Growth and Reproduction Number for the Novel Coronavirus Disease (COVID-19) Outbreak on the Diamond Princess Cruise Ship from January 20 to February 19, 2020: A Preliminary Data-Driven Analysis , 2020 .

[18]  H. Shan,et al.  Evidence for Gastrointestinal Infection of SARS-CoV-2 , 2020, Gastroenterology.

[19]  Young-Jun Park,et al.  Structure, Function, and Antigenicity of the SARS-CoV-2 Spike Glycoprotein , 2020, Cell.

[20]  C. D. Dela Cruz,et al.  Protecting health-care workers from subclinical coronavirus infection , 2020, The Lancet Respiratory Medicine.

[21]  G. Kampf,et al.  Persistence of coronaviruses on inanimate surfaces and their inactivation with biocidal agents , 2020, Journal of Hospital Infection.

[22]  G. Leung,et al.  Nowcasting and forecasting the potential domestic and international spread of the 2019-nCoV outbreak originating in Wuhan, China: a modelling study , 2020, The Lancet.

[23]  P. Vollmar,et al.  Transmission of 2019-nCoV Infection from an Asymptomatic Contact in Germany , 2020, The New England journal of medicine.

[24]  Jing Zhao,et al.  Early Transmission Dynamics in Wuhan, China, of Novel Coronavirus–Infected Pneumonia , 2020, The New England journal of medicine.

[25]  S. Perlman,et al.  Another Decade, Another Coronavirus , 2020, The New England journal of medicine.

[26]  G. Gao,et al.  A Novel Coronavirus from Patients with Pneumonia in China, 2019 , 2020, The New England journal of medicine.

[27]  S. Lo,et al.  A familial cluster of pneumonia associated with the 2019 novel coronavirus indicating person-to-person transmission: a study of a family cluster , 2020, The Lancet.

[28]  Qianyun Liu,et al.  Emerging coronaviruses: Genome structure, replication, and pathogenesis , 2020, Journal of medical virology.

[29]  Kevin Van Den Wymelenberg,et al.  Lessons learned from implementing night ventilation of mass in a next-generation smart building , 2020 .

[30]  Benjamin J Cowling,et al.  Real-time tentative assessment of the epidemiological characteristics of novel coronavirus infections in Wuhan, China, as at 22 January 2020 , 2020, Euro surveillance : bulletin Europeen sur les maladies transmissibles = European communicable disease bulletin.

[31]  Gang Chen,et al.  Epidemiological and clinical characteristics of SARS-CoV-2 and SARS-CoV: a system review , 2020 .

[32]  P. Dabisch,et al.  The Influence of Simulated Sunlight on the Inactivation of Influenza Virus in Aerosols. , 2019, The Journal of infectious diseases.

[33]  J. Gilbert,et al.  Correction to: Microbial Exchange via Fomites and Implications for Human Health , 2019, Current Pollution Reports.

[34]  J. Gilbert,et al.  Microbial Exchange via Fomites and Implications for Human Health , 2019, Current Pollution Reports.

[35]  M. Fretz,et al.  Building upon current knowledge and techniques of indoor microbiology to construct the next era of theory into microorganisms, health, and the built environment , 2019, Journal of Exposure Science & Environmental Epidemiology.

[36]  A. Iwasaki,et al.  Low ambient humidity impairs barrier function and innate resistance against influenza infection , 2019, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences.

[37]  B. Bohannan,et al.  Moving microbes: the dynamics of transient microbial residence on human skin , 2019, bioRxiv.

[38]  H. Shaib,et al.  Middle East respiratory syndrome coronavirus (MERS-CoV): A review. , 2019, Germs.

[39]  Yuguo Li,et al.  Recognition of aerosol transmission of infectious agents: a commentary , 2019, BMC Infectious Diseases.

[40]  J. Tang,et al.  Mechanistic insights into the effect of humidity on airborne influenza virus survival, transmission and incidence , 2019, Journal of the Royal Society Interface.

[41]  Zhènglì Shí,et al.  Origin and evolution of pathogenic coronaviruses , 2018, Nature Reviews Microbiology.

[42]  C. Huttenhower,et al.  Daylight exposure modulates bacterial communities associated with household dust , 2018, Microbiome.

[43]  Xiaohong Zheng,et al.  Ventilation control for airborne transmission of human exhaled bio-aerosols in buildings. , 2018, Journal of thoracic disease.

[44]  D. Brenner,et al.  Far-UVC light: A new tool to control the spread of airborne-mediated microbial diseases , 2017, Scientific Reports.

[45]  Natasha S Crowcroft,et al.  The basic reproduction number (R0) of measles: a systematic review. , 2017, The Lancet. Infectious diseases.

[46]  J. L. Goldberg.  Guideline Implementation: Hand Hygiene , 2017, AORN journal.

[47]  K. G. Van Den Wymelenberg,et al.  Cleanliness in context: reconciling hygiene with a modern microbial perspective , 2017, Microbiome.

[48]  Jonathan A. Eisen,et al.  Ten questions concerning the microbiomes of buildings , 2016 .

[49]  S. Perlman,et al.  Efficacy of an Automated Multiple Emitter Whole-Room Ultraviolet-C Disinfection System Against Coronaviruses MHV and MERS-CoV , 2016, Infection Control & Hospital Epidemiology.

[50]  Su-Jin Park,et al.  Environmental Contamination and Viral Shedding in MERS Patients During MERS-CoV Outbreak in South Korea , 2015, Clinical infectious diseases : an official publication of the Infectious Diseases Society of America.

[51]  Igor Shuryak,et al.  207-nm UV Light—A Promising Tool for Safe Low-Cost Reduction of Surgical Site Infections. II: In-Vivo Safety Studies , 2013, PloS one.

[52]  S. Perlman,et al.  Coronaviruses: An Overview of Their Replication and Pathogenesis , 2015, Methods in molecular biology.

[53]  S. Cauchemez,et al.  Estimates of the reproduction number for seasonal, pandemic, and zoonotic influenza: a systematic review of the literature , 2014, BMC Infectious Diseases.

[54]  R. Walensky,et al.  Integrating social contact and environmental data in evaluating tuberculosis transmission in a South African township. , 2014, The Journal of infectious diseases.

[55]  Jeff Kline,et al.  Architectural Design Drives the Biogeography of Indoor Bacterial Communities , 2014, PloS one.

[56]  James F. Meadow,et al.  Indoor airborne bacterial communities are influenced by ventilation, occupancy, and outdoor air source , 2013, Indoor air.

[57]  Shelly L. Miller,et al.  Ultraviolet Germicidal Irradiation: Future Directions for Air Disinfection and Building Applications , 2013, Photochemistry and photobiology.

[58]  Christian Drosten,et al.  Commentary: Middle East Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus (MERS-CoV): Announcement of the Coronavirus Study Group , 2013, Journal of Virology.

[59]  Michael L. Kashon,et al.  High Humidity Leads to Loss of Infectious Influenza Virus from Simulated Coughs , 2013, PloS one.

[60]  Wan Yang,et al.  Mechanisms by Which Ambient Humidity May Affect Viruses in Aerosols , 2012, Applied and Environmental Microbiology.

[61]  Derk-Jan Dijk,et al.  Amplitude Reduction and Phase Shifts of Melatonin, Cortisol and Other Circadian Rhythms after a Gradual Advance of Sleep and Light Exposure in Humans , 2012, PloS one.

[62]  Jeff Kline,et al.  Architectural design influences the diversity and structure of the built environment microbiome , 2012, The ISME Journal.

[63]  N. Fishman,et al.  Healthcare Infection Control Practices Advisory Committee , 2012 .

[64]  J. Peiris,et al.  The Effects of Temperature and Relative Humidity on the Viability of the SARS Coronavirus , 2011, Advances in virology.

[65]  Jeff H. Rankin,et al.  Absenteeism, Performance and Occupant Satisfaction with the Indoor Environment of Green Toronto Schools , 2011 .

[66]  Farhad Memarzadeh,et al.  Applications of ultraviolet germicidal irradiation disinfection in health care facilities: Effective adjunct, but not stand-alone technology , 2010, American Journal of Infection Control.

[67]  M. Sobsey,et al.  Effects of Air Temperature and Relative Humidity on Coronavirus Survival on Surfaces , 2010, Applied and Environmental Microbiology.

[68]  Charles H. Calisher,et al.  Cross-Species Virus Transmission and the Emergence of New Epidemic Diseases , 2008, Microbiology and Molecular Biology Reviews.

[69]  Richard L Vincent,et al.  Safety of Upper-Room Ultraviolet Germicidal Air Disinfection for Room Occupants: Results from the Tuberculosis Ultraviolet Shelter Study , 2008, Public health reports.

[70]  Seung Won Kim,et al.  Effects of humidity and other factors on the generation and sampling of a coronavirus aerosol , 2007, Aerobiologia.

[71]  Y. Li,et al.  How far droplets can move in indoor environments--revisiting the Wells evaporation-falling curve. , 2007, Indoor air.

[72]  C. Tseng,et al.  Inactivation of Viruses on Surfaces by Ultraviolet Germicidal Irradiation , 2007, Journal of occupational and environmental hygiene.

[73]  J. Sagripanti,et al.  Predicted Inactivation of Viruses of Relevance to Biodefense by Solar Radiation , 2005, Journal of Virology.

[74]  S. Paton,et al.  Detection of Airborne Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome (SARS) Coronavirus and Environmental Contamination in SARS Outbreak Units , 2005, The Journal of infectious diseases.

[75]  Y. Li,et al.  Multi-zone modeling of probable SARS virus transmission by airflow between flats in Block E, Amoy Gardens. , 2005, Indoor air.

[76]  R. So,et al.  Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome and Sport , 2012, Sports medicine.

[77]  David M. Bell,et al.  Public Health Interventions and SARS Spread, 2003 , 2004, Emerging infectious diseases.

[78]  S. Dowell,et al.  Early containment of severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS); experience from Bamrasnaradura Institute, Thailand. , 2004, Journal of the Medical Association of Thailand = Chotmaihet thangphaet.

[79]  D. Hui,et al.  Severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS): epidemiology and clinical features , 2004, Postgraduate Medical Journal.

[80]  Tze Wai Wong,et al.  Evidence of airborne transmission of the severe acute respiratory syndrome virus. , 2004, The New England journal of medicine.

[81]  J. A. Comer,et al.  Ultrastructural Characterization of SARS Coronavirus , 2004, Emerging infectious diseases.

[82]  Y. Guan,et al.  Coronavirus as a possible cause of severe acute respiratory syndrome , 2003, The Lancet.

[83]  W. Ott,et al.  The Effect of Opening Windows on Air Change Rates in Two Homes , 2002, Journal of the Air & Waste Management Association.

[84]  R. Eccles,et al.  An Explanation for the Seasonality of Acute Upper Respiratory Tract Viral Infections , 2002, Acta oto-laryngologica.

[85]  P. Talbot,et al.  Survival of human coronaviruses 229E and OC43 in suspension and after drying onsurfaces: a possible source ofhospital-acquired infections , 2000, Journal of Hospital Infection.

[86]  J. Druce,et al.  Inactivation of feline calicivirus, a Norwalk virus surrogate. , 1999, The Journal of hospital infection.

[87]  J. Regnard,et al.  Nasal mucociliary transport in healthy subjects is slower when breathing dry air. , 1988, The European respiratory journal.

[88]  S. Block,et al.  Humidity requirements for mold growth. , 1953, Applied microbiology.