Molecular events and signalling pathways involved in skeletal muscle disuse-induced atrophy and the impact of countermeasures

•  Introduction •  Overview of signalling pathways involved in disuse‐induced muscle atrophy ‐  Changes in protein synthesis and associated signalling pathways ‐  Several pathways contribute to increased protein degradation but to different extents ‐  Akt/FOXO transcriptional control and induction of the ubiquitin ligase pathway ‐  NF‐κB pathways activated during disuse atrophy ‐  Additional events controlling muscle atrophy ‐  Apoptotic pathways are involved depending on the atrophy models ‐  Preferential role of myostatin in inhibiting hypertrophy rather than inducing atrophy •  Different approaches to counteract muscle disuse‐induced atrophy ‐  Exercise and physical training ‐  Nutritional aids ‐  Manipulations of growth factors ‐  Additional nutritional, ergogenic supplements and drugs ‐  Combined countermeasures for optimized effects •  Conclusion and perspectives