Bacterial decolorization and degradation of azo dyes: a review.

A variety of synthetic dyestuffs released by the textile industry pose a threat to environmental safety. Azo dyes account for the majority of all dyestuffs, produced because they are extensively used in the textile, paper, food, leather, cosmetics and pharmaceutical industries. Existing effluent treatment procedures are unable to remove recalcitrant azo dyes completely from effluents because of their color fastness, stability and resistance to degradation. Bacterial decolorization and degradation of azo dyes under certain environmental conditions has gained momentum as a method of treatment, as these are inexpensive, eco-friendly and can be applied to wide range of such dyes. This review mainly focuses on the different mechanisms of decolorization and discusses the effect of various physicochemical parameters on the dye removal efficiency of different bacteria. The enzymatic mechanisms involved in the bacterial degradation of azo dyes, the identification of metabolites by using various analytical techniques, and the nature of their toxicity has been investigated. This review provides an overview of bacterial decolorization/degradation of azo dyes and emphasizes the application of these processes for the treatment of azo dye-containing wastewaters.

[1]  Jo‐Shu Chang,et al.  Azo dye decolorization with a mutant Escherichia coli strain , 2004, Biotechnology Letters.

[2]  F. Lin,et al.  Metabolically inactive Trichoderma harzianum mediated adsorption of synthetic dyes: Equilibrium and kinetic studies , 2009 .

[3]  N. Durán,et al.  Potential applications of oxidative enzymes and phenoloxidase-like compounds in wastewater and soil treatment: a review , 2000 .

[4]  Jo‐Shu Chang,et al.  Kinetic characteristics of bacterial azo-dye decolorization by Pseudomonas luteola. , 2001, Water research.

[5]  Yun Tian,et al.  Bacterial decolorization and degradation of the reactive dye Reactive Red 180 by Citrobacter sp. CK3 , 2009 .

[6]  K. Patel,et al.  Decolorization of diazo‐dye Reactive Blue 172 by Pseudomonas aeruginosa NBAR12 , 2005, Journal of basic microbiology.

[7]  T Robinson,et al.  Remediation of dyes in textile effluent: a critical review on current treatment technologies with a proposed alternative. , 2001, Bioresource technology.

[8]  D. Madamwar,et al.  Isolation, characterization and decolorization of textile dyes by a mixed bacterial consortium JW-2 , 2007 .

[9]  C. Nachiyar,et al.  Degradation of a tannery and textile dye, Navitan Fast Blue S5R by Pseudomonas aeruginosa , 2003 .

[10]  U. Jadhav,et al.  Effect of inducers on the decolorization and biodegradation of textile azo dye Navy blue 2GL by Bacillus sp. VUS , 2009, Biodegradation.

[11]  H. Pinheiro,et al.  Effect of some operational parameters on textile dye biodegradation in a sequential batch reactor. , 2001, Journal of biotechnology.

[12]  P. Bishop,et al.  Degradation of acid orange 7 in an aerobic biofilm. , 2002, Chemosphere.

[13]  Sheng-Jie You,et al.  Anaerobic decolorization bacteria for the treatment of azo dye in a sequential anaerobic and aerobic membrane bioreactor , 2009 .

[14]  Bor-Yann Chen,et al.  Revealing interactive toxicity of aromatic amines to azo dye decolorizer Aeromonas hydrophila. , 2009, Journal of hazardous materials.

[15]  Jo‐Shu Chang,et al.  Decolorization of azo dyes with immobilized Pseudomonas luteola , 2001 .

[16]  Jo‐Shu Chang,et al.  Fed‐Batch Bioreactor Strategies for Microbial Decolorization of Azo Dye Using a Pseudomonasluteola Strain , 2000, Biotechnology progress.

[17]  K. O’Connor,et al.  Biochemical characterisation of the coexisting tyrosinase and laccase in the soil bacterium Pseudomonas putida F6 , 2007 .

[18]  S. Pavlostathis,et al.  Decolorization kinetics of the azo dye Reactive Red 2 under methanogenic conditions: effect of long-term culture acclimation , 2005, Biodegradation.

[19]  U. Szewzyk,et al.  Transformation of Industrial Dyes by Manganese Peroxidases from Bjerkandera adusta and Pleurotus eryngii in a Manganese-Independent Reaction , 1998, Applied and Environmental Microbiology.

[20]  Nishant A. Dafale,et al.  Decolorization of azo dyes and simulated dye bath wastewater using acclimatized microbial consortium--biostimulation and halo tolerance. , 2008, Bioresource technology.

[21]  Guangfei Liu,et al.  Bioaugmentation on decolorization of C.I. Direct Blue 71 by using genetically engineered strain Escherichia coli JM109 (pGEX-AZR). , 2009, Journal of hazardous materials.

[22]  J. Nielsen,et al.  Characterization of a simple bacterial consortium for effective treatment of wastewaters with reactive dyes and Cr(VI). , 2007, Chemosphere.

[23]  Carolyn I. Pearce,et al.  The removal of colour from textile wastewater using whole bacterial cells: a review , 2003 .

[24]  Y. Shouche,et al.  Decolorization and degradation of Disperse Blue 79 and Acid Orange 10, by Bacillus fusiformis KMK5 isolated from the textile dye contaminated soil. , 2008, Bioresource technology.

[25]  Poonam Singh,et al.  Bacterial Decolorization and Degradation of Azo Dyes , 2007 .

[26]  S. Govindwar,et al.  Effect of carbon source on the biotransformation enzymesin Serratia marcescens , 1999 .

[27]  T. Chakrabarti,et al.  Decolorisation and detoxification of Direct Blue-15 by a bacterial consortium. , 2007, Bioresource technology.

[28]  Stephen E Mbuligwe,et al.  Comparative treatment of dye-rich wastewater in engineered wetland systems (EWSs) vegetated with different plants. , 2005, Water research.

[29]  Nelson Durán,et al.  Applications of laccases and tyrosinases (phenoloxidases) immobilized on different supports: a review , 2002 .

[30]  Meiying Xu,et al.  Biodegradation of textile azo dye by Shewanella decolorationis S12 under microaerophilic conditions , 2007, Applied Microbiology and Biotechnology.

[31]  P. Dubin,et al.  Reduction of azo food dyes in cultures of Proteus vulgaris. , 1975, Xenobiotica; the fate of foreign compounds in biological systems.

[32]  J. Houng,et al.  Microbial decolorization of azo dyes by Proteus mirabilis , 1999, Journal of Industrial Microbiology and Biotechnology.

[33]  Jo‐Shu Chang,et al.  Outlook of biohydrogen production from lignocellulosic feedstock using dark fermentation - A review , 2008 .

[34]  E. Forgács,et al.  Removal of synthetic dyes from wastewaters: a review. , 2004, Environment international.

[35]  Willy Verstraete,et al.  Treatment and Reuse of Wastewater from the Textile Wet-Processing Industry : Review of Emerging Technologies , 1998 .

[36]  A. Stolz,et al.  The Function of Cytoplasmic Flavin Reductases in the Reduction of Azo Dyes by Bacteria , 2000, Applied and Environmental Microbiology.

[37]  M. Gutiérrez,et al.  Decolourisation of simulated reactive dyebath effluents by electrochemical oxidation assisted by UV light. , 2006, Chemosphere.

[38]  Mark A. Brown,et al.  Predicting azo dye toxicity , 1993 .

[39]  B. Vyas,et al.  Degradation of xenobiotic compounds by lignin-degrading white-rot fungi: enzymology and mechanisms involved. , 2005, Indian journal of experimental biology.

[40]  J. V. Lier,et al.  Azo dye reduction by thermophilic anaerobic granular sludge, and the impact of the redox mediator anthraquinone-2,6-disulfonate (AQDS) on the reductive biochemical transformation , 2004, Applied Microbiology and Biotechnology.

[41]  Utkarsha U. Shedbalkar,et al.  Biodegradation of diazo reactive dye Navy blue HE2R (Reactive blue 172) by an isolated Exiguobacterium sp. RD3 , 2008 .

[42]  Hai Yan,et al.  Increase in biodegradation of dimethyl phthalate by Closterium lunula using inorganic carbon. , 2004, Chemosphere.

[43]  I. Gonçalves,et al.  Anaerobic decolorization of an azo dye by a mixed culture , 2001 .

[44]  H. D. Stensel,et al.  Wastewater Engineering: Treatment and Reuse , 2002 .

[45]  C. Cerniglia,et al.  Decolorization of water and oil-soluble azo dyes by Lactobacillus acidophilus and Lactobacillus fermentum , 2009, Journal of Industrial Microbiology & Biotechnology.

[46]  K. Wuhrmann,et al.  Investigation on rate — Determining factors in the microbial reduction of azo dyes , 1980, European journal of applied microbiology and biotechnology.

[47]  P. Wong,et al.  Decolorization and biodegradation of methyl red by Klebsiella pneumoniae RS-13 , 1996 .

[48]  K. Muthukumar,et al.  Improved biodegradation of Congored by using Bacillus sp. , 2009, Bioresource technology.

[49]  B. Angelova,et al.  Temperature effect on bacterial azo bond reduction kinetics: an Arrhenius plot analysis , 2008, Biodegradation.

[50]  D. Madamwar,et al.  Decolourization of synthetic dyes by a newly isolated strain of Serratia marcescens , 2003 .

[51]  Bor-Yann Chen,et al.  Revealing azo-dye decolorization of indigenous Aeromonas hydrophila from fountain spring in Northeast Taiwan , 2008 .

[52]  Rujikan Nasanit,et al.  Decolorization and Degradation of C. I. Reactive Red 195 by Enterobacter sp. , 2007 .

[53]  U. Jadhav,et al.  Decolorization of Direct Blue GLL with enhanced lignin peroxidase enzyme production in Comamonas sp UVS , 2009 .

[54]  Jo‐Shu Chang,et al.  Immobilized cell fixed-bed bioreactor for wastewater decolorization , 2005 .

[55]  G. Saratale,et al.  Study of mixed function oxidase system in Aspergillus ochraceus (NCIM 1146) , 2007, Indian Journal of Microbiology.

[56]  C. Johannes,et al.  Oxidation of Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons (PAH) by Laccase of Trametes Versicolor , 1998 .

[57]  R. Sanford,et al.  Characterization of Fe(III) Reduction by Chlororespiring Anaeromxyobacter dehalogenans , 2003, Applied and Environmental Microbiology.

[58]  Meiying Xu,et al.  Effects of electron donors and acceptors on anaerobic reduction of azo dyes by Shewanella decolorationis S12 , 2007, Applied Microbiology and Biotechnology.

[59]  T. Tzanov,et al.  An acid-stable laccase from Sclerotium rolfsii with potential for wool dye decolourization , 2003 .

[60]  J. Schwitzguébel,et al.  Screening of plant species for the phytotreatment of wastewater containing sulphonated anthraquinones. , 2004, Water research.

[61]  Liping Jiang,et al.  Sudan I induces genotoxic effects and oxidative DNA damage in HepG2 cells. , 2007, Mutation research.

[62]  F. Prenafeta-Boldú,et al.  Fate and biodegradability of sulfonated aromatic amines , 2005, Biodegradation.

[63]  D. Goyal,et al.  Decolorization of Direct Red 28 by mixed bacterial culture in an up-flow immobilized bioreactor , 2009, Journal of Industrial Microbiology & Biotechnology.

[64]  L. Kapustka,et al.  Terrestrial Primary Producers , 2009 .

[65]  M. Moo-young,et al.  Decolourization and Detoxification of Methyl Red by Aerobic Bacteria from A Wastewater Treatment Plant , 2004 .

[66]  Gao-Qiang Liu,et al.  Decolorization of a dye industry effluent by Aspergillus fumigatus XC6 , 2007, Applied Microbiology and Biotechnology.

[67]  U. Jadhav,et al.  Purification and characterization of an extracellular laccase from a Pseudomonas sp. LBC1 and its application for the removal of bisphenol A , 2009 .

[68]  P. Okerentugba,et al.  Performance and efficiency of a yeast biofilter for the treatment of a Nigerian fertilizer plant effluent , 1999 .

[69]  U. Jadhav,et al.  Biodegradation of Direct Red 5B, a textile dye by newly isolated Comamonas sp. UVS. , 2008, Journal of hazardous materials.

[70]  Jo‐Shu Chang,et al.  Decolorization kinetics of a recombinant Escherichia coli strain harboring azo-dye-decolorizing determinants from Rhodococcus sp. , 2001, Biotechnology Letters.

[71]  G. Ghodake,et al.  BIODEGRADATION OF DIAZO DYE DIRECT BROWN MR BY ACINETOBACTER CALCOACETICUS NCIM 2890 , 2009 .

[72]  Jo‐Shu Chang,et al.  Stimulation of bacterial decolorization of an azo dye by extracellular metabolites from Escherichia coli strain NO3. , 2004, Bioresource technology.

[73]  U. Jadhav,et al.  Biodegradation of disperse dye brown 3REL by microbial consortium of Galactomyces geotrichum MTCC 1360 and Bacillus sp. VUS , 2008 .

[74]  Ji-ti Zhou,et al.  Azo dye decolorization by a new fungal isolate, Penicillium sp. QQ and fungal-bacterial cocultures. , 2009, Journal of hazardous materials.

[75]  S. Hwang,et al.  Decolorization of the textile dyes by newly isolated bacterial strains. , 2003, Journal of biotechnology.

[76]  S. Dinçer,et al.  The reuse of dried activated sludge for adsorption of reactive dye. , 2006, Journal of hazardous materials.

[77]  A. Bjourson,et al.  Paenibacillus azoreducens sp. nov., a synthetic azo dye decolorizing bacterium from industrial wastewater. , 2001, International journal of systematic and evolutionary microbiology.

[78]  D. Madamwar,et al.  Decolorization of diazo dye Direct Red 81 by a novel bacterial consortium , 2006 .

[79]  D. Goyal,et al.  Decolorization of textile azo dyes by aerobic bacterial consortium , 2009 .

[80]  V. Saini,et al.  Biosorption of copper(II) from aqueous solutions by Spirogyra species. , 2006, Journal of colloid and interface science.

[81]  D. Strik,et al.  Application of redox mediators to accelerate the transformation of reactive azo dyes in anaerobic bioreactors. , 2001, Biotechnology and bioengineering.

[82]  A. Stolz,et al.  Cloning and characterization of the gene coding for the aerobic azoreductase from Pigmentiphaga kullae K24 , 2003, Applied Microbiology and Biotechnology.

[83]  A. Kandelbauer,et al.  Indigo degradation with purified laccases from Trametes hirsuta and Sclerotium rolfsii. , 2001, Journal of biotechnology.

[84]  P. Bishop,et al.  Two stage anaerobic/aerobic treatment of sulfonated azo dyes , 1995 .

[85]  Qingxiang Yang,et al.  Decolorization of synthetic dyes and production of manganese-dependent peroxidase by new fungal isolates , 2003, Biotechnology Letters.

[86]  S. L. Hopper,et al.  Biochemical and molecular characterization of an azoreductase from Staphylococcus aureus, a tetrameric NADPH-dependent flavoprotein. , 2005, Microbiology.

[87]  S. Pointing,et al.  Decolorization of azo and triphenylmethane dyes by Pycnoporus sanguineus producing laccase as the sole phenoloxidase , 2000 .

[88]  Zhongjian Li,et al.  Biodegradation of Reactive blue 13 in a two-stage anaerobic/aerobic fluidized beds system with a Pseudomonas sp. isolate. , 2010, Bioresource technology.

[89]  V. Renganathan,et al.  Phenolic Azo Dye Oxidation by Laccase from Pyricularia oryzae , 1995, Applied and environmental microbiology.

[90]  J. Libra,et al.  Mechanism of Decolorization of Azo Dyes in Anaerobic Mixed Culture , 2001 .

[91]  S. Govindwar,et al.  Degradation analysis of Reactive Red 198 by hairy roots of Tagetes patula L. (Marigold) , 2009, Planta.

[92]  Jo‐Shu Chang,et al.  Ecofriendly degradation of sulfonated diazo dye C.I. Reactive Green 19A using Micrococcus glutamicus NCIM-2168. , 2009, Bioresource technology.

[93]  B. S. Chadha,et al.  Comparative studies on potential of consortium and constituent pure bacterial isolates to decolorize azo dyes. , 2005, Water research.

[94]  U. Jadhav,et al.  Biodegradation of disperse textile dye Brown 3REL by newly isolated Bacillus sp. VUS , 2008, Journal of applied microbiology.

[95]  J. S Knapp,et al.  Decolorization of an azo dye by unacclimated activated sludge under anaerobic conditions , 2000 .

[96]  G. Ghodake,et al.  POTENTIAL OF BRASSICA JUNCEA IN ORDER TO TREAT TEXTILE—EFFLUENT—CONTAMINATED SITES , 2009 .

[97]  M. Lucas,et al.  Biodegradation of the diazo dye Reactive Black 5 by a wild isolate of Candida oleophila , 2006 .

[98]  S. Garg,et al.  Isolation, identification and application of novel bacterial consortium TJ-1 for the decolourization of structurally different azo dyes. , 2008, Bioresource technology.

[99]  S. Govindwar,et al.  Brevibacillus laterosporus MTCC 2298: a potential azo dye degrader , 2009, Journal of applied microbiology.

[100]  M. Asgher,et al.  Decolorization potential of mixed microbial consortia for reactive and disperse textile dyestuffs , 2007, Biodegradation.

[101]  Y. Yun,et al.  Utilization of fermentation waste (Corynebacterium glutamicum) for biosorption of Reactive Black 5 from aqueous solution. , 2007, Journal of hazardous materials.

[102]  I. Hardin,et al.  HPLC and spectrophotometric analysis of biodegradation of azo dyes by Pleurotus ostreatus , 2007 .

[103]  M. Jadhav,et al.  Textile dye degrading laccase from Pseudomonas desmolyticum NCIM 2112 , 2009 .

[104]  J. Lloyd,et al.  Reduction and removal of heptavalent technetium from solution by Escherichia coli , 1997, Journal of bacteriology.

[105]  S. Pavlostathis,et al.  Biological Decolorization of the Azo Dye Reactive Red 2 Under Various Oxidation–Reduction Conditions , 2000 .

[106]  H. Pinheiro,et al.  Reactive textile dye colour removal in a sequencing batch reactor , 2000 .

[107]  Nishant A. Dafale,et al.  Microbial decolorization of reactive black-5 in a two-stage anaerobic–aerobic reactor using acclimatized activated textile sludge , 2006, Biodegradation.

[108]  Filiz B. Dilek,et al.  Treatment of tectilon yellow 2G by Chlorella vulgaris , 2004 .

[109]  Ibrahim M. Banat,et al.  Microbial decolorization of textile-dye-containing effluents A review , 1996 .

[110]  F. Arnold,et al.  Functional expression and stabilization of horseradish peroxidase by directed evolution in Saccharomyces cerevisiae. , 2001, Biotechnology and bioengineering.

[111]  J. Field,et al.  Riboflavin as a redox mediator accelerating the reduction of the azo dye mordant yellow 10 by anaerobic granular sludge. , 2003, Water science and technology : a journal of the International Association on Water Pollution Research.

[112]  G. Saratale,et al.  Decolorization and biodegradation of reactive dyes and dye wastewater by a developed bacterial consortium , 2010, Biodegradation.

[113]  H. Zollinger.  Color chemistry: Syntheses, properties, and applications of organic dyes and pigments , 1987 .

[114]  Ji-ti Zhou,et al.  Bacterial Decolorization of Azo Dyes by Rhodopseudomonas palustris , 2006 .

[115]  Bor-Yann Chen,et al.  Understanding effects of chemical structure on azo dye decolorization characteristics by Aeromonas hydrophila. , 2009, Journal of hazardous materials.

[116]  A. Stolz,et al.  Effects of different quinoid redox mediators on the anaerobic reduction of azo dyes by bacteria. , 2002, Environmental science & technology.

[117]  Bor-Yann Chen.  Toxicity assessment of aromatic amines to Pseudomonas luteola: Chemostat pulse technique and dose–response analysis , 2006 .

[118]  Isil Akmehmet Balcioglu,et al.  Advanced oxidation of a reactive dyebath effluent: comparison of O3, H2O2/UV-C and TiO2/UV-A processes. , 2002, Water research.

[119]  S. Ramaswamy,et al.  Crystal structure of NAD(P)H:flavin oxidoreductase from Escherichia coli. , 1999, Biochemistry.

[120]  A. Moes,et al.  Study of some important factors involved in azo derivative reduction by Clostridium perfringens , 1998 .

[121]  S. Wilcox,et al.  Anaerobic and aerobic treatment of a simulated textile effluent , 1999 .

[122]  K. Muthukumar,et al.  Bacillus sp. mutant for improved biodegradation of Congo red: random mutagenesis approach. , 2009, Bioresource technology.

[123]  Ji-ti Zhou,et al.  Acceleration of azo dye decolorization by using quinone reductase activity of azoreductase and quinone redox mediator. , 2009, Bioresource technology.

[124]  T. Hu.  Kinetics of azoreductase and assessment of toxicity of metabolic products from azo dyes by Pseudomonas luteola. , 2001, Water science and technology : a journal of the International Association on Water Pollution Research.

[125]  M. Amoozegar,et al.  Decolorization of textile azo dyes by newly isolated halophilic and halotolerant bacteria. , 2007, Bioresource Technology.

[126]  Jyh-Shyong Chang,et al.  Removal of acid dye by ZnFe2O4/TiO2-immobilized granular activated carbon under visible light irradiation in a recycle liquid–solid fluidized bed , 2009 .

[127]  M. Hecker,et al.  Regulation of quinone detoxification by the thiol stress sensing DUF24/MarR‐like repressor, YodB in Bacillus subtilis , 2008, Molecular microbiology.

[128]  I. Soojhawon,et al.  Microbial decolorization of reactive azo dyes under aerobic conditions , 2005 .

[129]  D. Kalyani,et al.  Ecofriendly biodegradation and detoxification of Reactive Red 2 textile dye by newly isolated Pseudomonas sp. SUK1. , 2009, Journal of hazardous materials.

[130]  S. Govindwar,et al.  Biotransformation of malachite green by Saccharomyces cerevisiae MTCC 463 , 2006, Yeast.

[131]  A. Stolz.  Basic and applied aspects in the microbial degradation of azo dyes , 2001, Applied Microbiology and Biotechnology.

[132]  T. Viraraghavan,et al.  Dye removal using low cost adsorbents , 1997 .

[133]  T. Yoda,et al.  Molecular Cloning and Characterization of the Gene Coding for Azoreductase from Bacillus sp. OY1-2 Isolated from Soil* , 2001, The Journal of Biological Chemistry.

[134]  I. Safarik,et al.  Biosorption of water-soluble dyes on magnetically modified Saccharomyces cerevisiae subsp. uvarum cells. , 2005, Chemosphere.

[135]  A. Khataee,et al.  Biological decolorization of dye solution containing Malachite Green by microalgae Cosmarium sp. , 2007, Bioresource technology.

[136]  A. Stolz,et al.  Oxygen-Insensitive Nitroreductases NfsA and NfsB of Escherichia coli Function under Anaerobic Conditions as Lawsone-Dependent Azo Reductases , 2003, Applied and Environmental Microbiology.

[137]  O. Benada,et al.  Decolorization of Orange G and Remazol Brilliant Blue R by the white rot fungus Dichomitus squalens: toxicological evaluation and morphological study. , 2007, Chemosphere.

[138]  U. Banerjee,et al.  Removal of Dyes from the Effluent of Textile and Dyestuff Manufacturing Industry: A Review of Emerging Techniques With Reference to Biological Treatment , 2005 .

[139]  G. Saratale,et al.  Decolorisation of textile dyes by Aspergillus ochraceus (NCIM-1146) , 2006 .

[140]  D. Sponza,et al.  A batch kinetic study on decolorization and inhibition of Reactive Black 5 and Direct Brown 2 in an anaerobic mixed culture. , 2004, Chemosphere.

[141]  S. Bloomfield,et al.  Investigations into the azo reducing activity of a common colonic microorganism , 1997 .

[142]  R. Juang,et al.  Enhanced abilities of highly swollen chitosan beads for color removal and tyrosinase immobilization. , 2001, Journal of hazardous materials.

[143]  S. Govindwar,et al.  Biotechnological strategies for phytoremediation of the sulfonated azo dye Direct Red 5B using Blumea malcolmii Hook. , 2009, Bioresource technology.

[144]  S. Govindwar,et al.  Biodegradation of benzidine based dye Direct Blue-6 by Pseudomonas desmolyticum NCIM 2112. , 2007, Bioresource technology.

[145]  M. Jadhav,et al.  Decolorization of Brilliant Blue G dye mediated by degradation of the microbial consortium of Galactomyces geotrichum and Bacillus sp. , 2008 .

[146]  M. Metwally,et al.  Use of Tyrosinase Enzyme from Bacillus thuringiensis for the Decontamination of Water Polluted with Phenols , 2008 .

[147]  Xinmiao Liang,et al.  Effects of dye additives on the ozonation process and oxidation by-products: a comparative study using hydrolyzed C.I. Reactive Red 120 , 2004 .

[148]  S. Govindwar,et al.  Partial inhibition of hepatic microsomal aminopyrine N-demethylase by caffeine in partially purified cytochrome P450. , 1983, Biochimica et biophysica acta.

[149]  D. Madamwar,et al.  Decolorization of ranocid fast blue dye by bacterial consortium SV5 , 2004, Applied Biochemistry and Biotechnology.

[150]  Da‐hong Wang,et al.  Cytotoxicity of lawsone and cytoprotective activity of antioxidants in catalase mutant Escherichia coli. , 2007, Toxicology.

[151]  S. Sandhya,et al.  Aerobic Biodegradation Pathway for Remazol Orange by Pseudomonas aeruginosa , 2010, Applied biochemistry and biotechnology.

[152]  Wen-rong Hu,et al.  Biodegradation mechanisms and kinetics of azo dye 4BS by a microbial consortium. , 2004, Chemosphere.

[153]  J. Knapp,et al.  The microbiological decolorization of an industrial effluent containing a diazo-linked chromophore , 1995 .

[154]  T. Tzanov,et al.  Decolorization and Detoxification of Textile Dyes with a Laccase from Trametes hirsuta , 2000, Applied and Environmental Microbiology.

[155]  D. Stuckey,et al.  Microbial Populations Associated with Treatment of an Industrial Dye Effluent in an Anaerobic Baffled Reactor , 2001, Applied and Environmental Microbiology.

[156]  I. Chu,et al.  Structure–activity relationship study on the bioreduction of AZO dyes by Clostridium paraputrificum , 2001, Environmental toxicology and chemistry.

[157]  Bor-Yann Chen.  Understanding decolorization characteristics of reactive azo dyes by Pseudomonas luteola: toxicity and kinetics , 2002 .

[158]  Ji-ti Zhou,et al.  Biocalalyst effects of immobilized anthraquinone on the anaerobic reduction of azo dyes by the salt-tolerant bacteria. , 2007, Water research.

[159]  R. Sani,et al.  DECOLORIZATION OF TRIPHENYLMETHANE DYES AND TEXTILE AND DYE-STUFF EFFLUENT BY KURTHIA SP , 1999 .

[160]  G. Saratale,et al.  Decolorization and biodegradation of textile dye Navy blue HER by Trichosporon beigelii NCIM-3326. , 2009, Journal of hazardous materials.

[161]  Jules B van Lier,et al.  Review paper on current technologies for decolourisation of textile wastewaters: perspectives for anaerobic biotechnology. , 2007, Bioresource technology.

[162]  T. Robinson,et al.  Microbial decolourisation and degradation of textile dyes , 2001, Applied Microbiology and Biotechnology.

[163]  D. Madamwar,et al.  Decolourization of textile dye Reactive Violet 5 by a newly isolated bacterial consortium RVM 11.1 , 2005 .

[164]  H. Pinheiro,et al.  Batch tests for assessing decolourisation of azo dyes by methanogenic and mixed cultures. , 2001, Journal of Biotechnology.

[165]  G. Saratale,et al.  Biotransformation enzymes in Cunninghamella blakesleeana (NCIM‐687) , 2006, Journal of basic microbiology.

[166]  D. Kalyani,et al.  Kinetics and Mechanism of Reactive Red 141 Degradation by a Bacterial Isolate Rhizobium radiobacter MTCC 8161 , 2008 .

[167]  G. Saratale,et al.  Biodegradation of kerosene by Aspergillus ochraceus NCIM‐1146 , 2007, Journal of basic microbiology.

[168]  T. Leisinger,et al.  Comparison of two bacterial azoreductases acquired during adaptation to growth on azo dyes , 1984, Archives of Microbiology.

[169]  E. Voudrias,et al.  Decolorization of azo-reactive dyes and cotton-textile wastewater using anaerobic digestion and acetate-consuming bacteria , 2004 .

[170]  Xiaodong Zhang,et al.  Phenoloxidases in Portabella Mushrooms , 1997 .

[171]  R. H. F. Vieira,et al.  Cometabolic Decolorization of the Reactive Azo Dye Orange II by Geobacillus stearothermophilus UCP 986 , 2009 .

[172]  Jo‐Shu Chang,et al.  Enhanced decolorization and biodegradation of textile azo dye Scarlet R by using developed microbial consortium-GR. , 2009, Bioresource technology.

[173]  M. Jekel,et al.  Screening of commercial sorbents for the removal of reactive dyes , 2001 .

[174]  Santiago Villaverde,et al.  Combined anaerobic-aerobic treatment of azo dyes--a short review of bioreactor studies. , 2005, Water research.

[175]  T. Leisinger,et al.  Properties of purified Orange II azoreductase, the enzyme initiating azo dye degradation by Pseudomonas KF46. , 1982, European journal of biochemistry.

[176]  R. Walker,et al.  Some molecular parameters influencing rate of reduction of azo compounds by intestinal microflora. , 1971, Xenobiotica; the fate of foreign compounds in biological systems.

[177]  P. Yue,et al.  Optimal decolorization and kinetic modeling of synthetic dyes by Pseudomonas strains. , 2001, Water research.

[178]  Jo‐Shu Chang,et al.  Kinetics of bacterial decolorization of azo dye with Escherichia coli NO3 , 2000 .

[179]  R. Bally,et al.  Purification and characterization of the first bacterial laccase in the rhizospheric bacterium Azospirillum lipoferum , 2000 .

[180]  S. Govindwar,et al.  Eco-friendly biodegradation of a reactive textile dye Golden Yellow HER by Brevibacillus laterosporus MTCC 2298 , 2009 .

[181]  T. Chakrabarti,et al.  Detoxification of benzidine-based azo dye by E. gallinarum: time-course study. , 2009, Ecotoxicology and environmental safety.

[182]  N. Hatvani,et al.  Production of laccase and manganese peroxidase by Lentinus edodes on malt-containing by-product of the brewing process , 2001 .

[183]  Pierre Strehaiano,et al.  Microbial decolorization of reactive azo dyes in a sequential anaerobic-aerobic system , 2004 .

[184]  J. Hawari,et al.  Biodegradation of octahydro-1,3,5,7-tetranitro-1,3,5,7-tetrazocine (HMX) by Phanerochaete chrysosporium: new insight into the degradation pathway. , 2004, Environmental science & technology.

[185]  W. Nakbanpote,et al.  Synthetic reactive dye wastewater treatment by narrow-leaved cattails (Typha angustifolia Linn.): effects of dye, salinity and metals. , 2007, The Science of the total environment.

[186]  D. Madamwar,et al.  Response surface methodology for optimization of medium for decolorization of textile dye Direct Black 22 by a novel bacterial consortium. , 2008, Bioresource technology.

[187]  H. Fang.  Environmental anaerobic technology : applications and new developments , 2010 .

[188]  Yong-Lark Choi,et al.  Decolorization of triphenylmethane and azo dyes by Citrobacter sp. , 2002, Biotechnology Letters.

[189]  Z. Aksu,et al.  A comparative study on the biosorption characteristics of some yeasts for Remazol Blue reactive dye. , 2003, Chemosphere.

[190]  U. Jadhav,et al.  Purification and characterization of veratryl alcohol oxidase from Comamonas sp. UVS and its role in decolorization of textile dyes , 2009 .

[191]  T. E. Abraham,et al.  Bioremediation of Textile Azo Dyes by Aerobic Bacterial Consortium Aerobic Degradation of Selected Azo Dyes by Bacterial Consortium , 2004, Biodegradation.

[192]  K. K. Prasad,et al.  Treatment of simulated Reactive Yellow 22 (azo) dye effluents using Spirogyra species. , 2002, Waste management.

[193]  L. Rosa,et al.  Biodegradation of reactive textile dyes by basidiomycetous fungi from brazilian ecosystems , 2006 .

[194]  Bor-Yann Chen,et al.  Assessment upon species evolution of mixed consortia for azo dye decolorization , 2007 .

[195]  R. Marchant,et al.  Decolourisation and metabolism of the reactive textile dye, Remazol Black B, by an immobilized microbial consortium , 1996, Biotechnology Letters.

[196]  T. Leisinger,et al.  Interference of aromatic sulfo groups in the microbial degradation of the azo dyes Orange I and Orange II , 1983, Archives of Microbiology.

[197]  D. Madamwar,et al.  Textile dye decolorization using cyanobacteria , 2005, Biotechnology Letters.

[198]  I. Banat,et al.  Microbial process for the decolorization of textile effluent containing azo, diazo and reactive dyes , 1996 .

[199]  D. Kalyani,et al.  Influence of organic and inorganic compounds on oxidoreductive decolorization of sulfonated azo dye C.I. Reactive Orange 16. , 2009, Journal of hazardous materials.

[200]  Yun Tian,et al.  Biological decolorization of the reactive dyes Reactive Black 5 by a novel isolated bacterial strain Enterobacter sp. EC3. , 2009, Journal of hazardous materials.

[201]  A. Kandelbauer,et al.  A New Alkali-Thermostable Azoreductase from Bacillus sp. Strain SF , 2004, Applied and Environmental Microbiology.

[202]  Y. Anjaneyulu,et al.  Decolourization of Industrial Effluents – Available Methods and Emerging Technologies – A Review , 2005 .

[203]  B. S. Chadha,et al.  Biodegradation of azo dye C.I. Acid Red 88 by an anoxic–aerobic sequential bioreactor , 2006 .

[204]  M. Noble,et al.  Molecular cloning, characterisation and ligand-bound structure of an azoreductase from Pseudomonas aeruginosa. , 2007, Journal of molecular biology.

[205]  S. Govindwar,et al.  Decolourization of azo dye methyl red by Saccharomyces cerevisiae MTCC 463. , 2007, Chemosphere.

[206]  C. Nachiyar,et al.  Purification and characterization of an oxygen insensitive azoreductase from Pseudomonas aeruginosa , 2005 .

[207]  D. Kalyani,et al.  Biodegradation of Reactive Blue 59 by isolated bacterial consortium PMB11 , 2008, Journal of Industrial Microbiology & Biotechnology.

[208]  A. Cavaco‐Paulo,et al.  Characterization of Azo Reduction Activity in a Novel Ascomycete Yeast Strain , 2004, Applied and Environmental Microbiology.